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| Common School Branches 
in a nutshell. 



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BY JOSIAH HUGHES. 






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PRICE, 50 CENTS. 



PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR, 

COUNTSVILLE, ROANE COUNTY, W. VA. 






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HUGHES'S 

Common School Branches 

in a nutshell 



PREPARED FOR THE BENEFIT OF 

TEACHERS AND STUDENTS 

— BYr^- 
/ 

JOS1A.H' HUGHES, 

^Superintendent of the Schools of Roane County^ 

W. Va,j and Author of rf Questions and 

Answers on United States History, IJ 



Copyright, 1898, by 
JOSIAH HUGHES. 



SECOND EDITION. 



PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR, 
Counts ville. W. Ya. 






174 






PREFACE. 



The object aimed at in the preparation of this work has 
been to compile a pocket library of the branches taught in 
the Common Schools, for the use of teachers, advanced stud- 
ents and private learners in reviewing the branches, and ex- 
tending their knowledge of them. 

In every branch of study there are certain essential prin- 
ciples and facts which should be remembered. These should 
be reviewed frequently, for every repetition seems to im- 
press an object of thought more indelibly upon the memory. 
The review should not be voluminous, yet it should be com- 
prehensive enough to give the student a clear knowledge of 
the subject reviewed. In the preparation of this work, the 
author's aim has been to furnish just such a review. 

The author submits this work to a discriminating public 
with the hope that it may prove to be helpful to teachers and 
students. 

Note to Revised Edition. 

The rapid and steady sale of the Old Edition shows that the 
book served its purpose. 

The author submits a thorough revision, with the hope that 
the Revised Edition may have even a wider welcome. 

June, 1898. 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/hughesscommonsch03hugh 



©rtbo0tapb\>. 



1. ORTHOGRAPHY treats of letters, syllables, and words. 
Remark. — The word Orthography is derived from the Greek 

orthos, right, and graphein, to write . 

2. A LETTER is a character used to represent one or 
more elementary sounds. 

3. AN ALPHABET (from alpha and beta) is the letters of 
a language arranged in the customary order. 

Remark. — The English alphabet is simply the Latin alphabet 
applied to the English language. The Latin alphabet was de- 
rived from the Greek, which was probably derived from the 
Phoenician, or from the Hebrew, with which it is closely allied. 

4. THE NAME of a letter is the appellation by which it 
is known. 

5. THE POWER of a letter is the elementary sound which 
it represents. 

6. AN ELEMENTARY SOUND is the simplest sound of 
a language ; as, a in ale. 

' 7. THE ELEMENTARY SOUNDS of the English lan- 
guage are about forty-two in number, and they are divided 
into (1) Vocals {Tonics), which consist of pure tone; (2) Sub- 
vocals {Suhtonics), which consist of tone united with breath; 
(3) Aspirates ( Atonies), which consist of pure breath only. 

8. LETTERS are divided into(l) Vowels, which represent 
Vocals'; (2) Consononts, which represent Subvocals and As- 
pirates. 

9. THE VOWELS are a, e, i, o, u, tv, and y. 



6 Orthography. 

10. W and y are consonants, when they begin words or sylla- 
bles and are immediately followed by a vowel. 

11. THE VOWEL SOUNDS of w and y are the same as 
those of v and i. 

12. I is a consonant, when it represents the sound of y in 
yet\ as in alien. 

13. U is a consonant, when it represents the sound of w 
consonant. 

14. A, -<?, and o are always vowels. 

15. CONSONANTS CLASSIFIED: (1) As to the nature 
of the sound represented, Subvocals and Aspirates/ (2) As to 
the position of the organs, Mutes and Semi-vowels; (3) As to 
the organs of speech that mainly operate to produce con- 
sonant sounds, Labials, Linguals, Linguo- dentals, L'mguo- 
nasal, Palato-nasal, and Palatals. 

•16. MUTES (Meplodents) are those consonants that can 
not be sounded without the aid of a vowel. They are b, d, 
l\ p, q, t, and c and g hard. 

17. SEMI-VOWELS ( Continuants) are those consonants 
that may represent sounds without the aid of a vowel. 
- 18. LABIALS are letters whose sounds are made mainly 
by the lips; as, b, v, w, ni,p,f, etc. 

19. LINGUALS are letters whose sounds are made mainly 
by the tongue ; as, /, r. 

20. LLNGUO-DENTALS are letters whose sounds are 
made mainly by the tongue and teeth; as, d,j, s, t, s, etc. 

21. LLNGUO-NASAL is a letter whose sound is articulated 
by the tongue, the sound passing through the nose ; as, h in 
'man. 

22. PALATO-NASAL (ng in *ong), is made mainly by the 
palate, the sound passing through the nose. 



Orthography. ' 

23. PALATALS are letters whose sounds are made mainly 
by the palate; as, g, y, k, A; _ . 

24. LIQUIDS are letters whose sounds flow readily into 
other sounds. They are I, m, «, and r. 

25. REDUNDANT LETTERS are those which have no 
sounds of their own. They are c,j, q, and x. 

26. COGNATE LETTERS are those whose sounds are pro- 
duced by the same organs, in a similar position; as, /and v, 

t and d. 

27. SIBILANT LETTERS are those which represent hiss- 
ing sounds; as, s and z. 

28 SILENT LETTERS {Aphthongs) are those which rep- 
resent no sounds, but are used: (1) To modify the sounds 
of other letters; as, e in late, g in sign. (2) To indicate the 
proper pronunciation of syllables and words; as, ova peace- 
able. (3) To determine the signification; as, u in buy. (4) 
To show the origin; as Pin Psyche (Greek.) 

Remark— F, j, q, r, x\ v, and z, are never silent. 

29. SYLLABICATION is the proper division of words 
into syllables, and has a two-fold object: (1) To indicate the 
pronunciation of words; (2) To show the composition or 

derivation of words. 

i? ema rJfc.— Syllables are: ultimate, the last; penultimate, the 
last but one; antepenultimate^ the last but two ypreantepenulti- 
mate, the last but three. 

30. A SPOKEN SYLLABLE is a sound or a combination 
of sounds uttered with one impulse of the voice. 

31. A WRITTEN SYLLABLE is a letter or a combination 
of letters representing a sound or sounds uttered with one 
impulse of the voice. 

82. A WORD is a syllable or a combination of syllables 
used as the sign of an idea. 



8 Orthography. 

33. WORDS CLASSIFIED: (1) As to form, Simple and 
Compound; (2) As to origin, Primitive and Derivative; (3) 
As to, number of syllables, Monosyllable, Dissyllable^ Trisyl- 
lable and Polysyllable. 

34. A SIMPLE WORD is a single word, either primitive 
or derivative; as, man, childish. 

35. A COMPOUND WORD is one composed of two or 
more simple words; as, inkstand, son-in-law, penman, cloud- 
capped. 

Remark.— Compound words not frequently used generally re- 
tain the hyphen. 

36. A PRIMITIVE WORD is one not derived from any 
other in the same language; as. child, write. 

37. A DERIVATIVE WORD is one formed from a single 
simpler word, by the addition of one or more letters, or syl- 
lables; as, childish, childishness, writing. 

38. A MONOSYLLABLE is a word of one syllable, 

39. A DISSYLLABLE is a word of two syllables. 

40. A TRISYLLABLE is a word of three syllables. 

41. A POLYSYLLABLE is a word of more than three syl- 
lables. 

42. THE BASE OF A SYLLABLE is the vocal or vowel 
used in its formation. 

43. THE BASE OF A COMPOUND WORD is the part 
modified; as, stand in inkstand. 

44. THE BASE OF A DERIVATIVE WORD is the 
primitive word from which it is derived; as, mind in remind- 
ful, having both a prefix and a suffix. 

45. A PREFIX is a modifier placed before a primitive or 
radical word; as, re in remind. 

46. A SUFFIX is a modifier placed after a primitive or 
radical word ; as, fid in fearful. 



Orthography. 9 

47. AN AFFIX is one or more letters or syllables added 
at the end of a word; a suffix; a postfix. — Webster. 

Remark. — Some authors define Affix as either a prefix or a 
suffix. 

48. ACCENT is a stress of voice laid on a particular sylla- 
ble. 

49. PRIMARY ACCENT is more forcible than any other 
in the same word. 

50. SECONDARY ACCENT is less forcible, and occurs 
nearest the beginning of a word. 

51. DISCRIMINATIVE ACCENT is used to distinguish 
words spelled alike, but differing in meaning; as, J.«gust, 
august. 

52. A DIPHTHONG is the union of two vowels in one syl- 
lable; as, al in vain, ow in cow, ea. in beat. 

53. A PROPER DIPHTHONG is one in which both 

vowels are sounded. 

Remark. — There are four proper diphthongs: ou in foal, ow in 
now, oi in boil, oy in boy. They represent two diphthongal sounds. 

54. AN IMPROPER DIPHTHONG {Digraph) is one in 
which but one vowel is sounded; as, ea in meat, oa in boat. 

Remark. — There are twenty-five digraphs. The following 
are in common use: ac, al. ecu, aw, ay, ea, el, eo, ea, ew, ey, la, ie, 
oa, oe, ua, tie, ui. and sometimes oa and ow, as in famous and 
slow. 

55. A TRIPHTHONG ( Trlgraph) is the union of three 
vowels in one syllable; as, lew in view, eau in beau. 

Remark 1.— There are no triphthongs in which the vowels are 
all sounded; therefore there are no proper triphthongs. In buoy 
and queen, a is a consonant. 

Remark 2. — The eight triphthongs, or trlgraphs, are: aye in 
aye, awe in awe, eau in beau and beauty, eou in gorgeous, eye in 
eye. ieu in lieu, lew in view, and owe in owe. 



10 • Orthography. 

56. A TETRAGRAPH is the union of lour vowels repre- 
senting one sound; as, ueue in qm m . 

57. THE CONSONANT COMBINATIONS are: ch, gh, 
j>h, sh, th, wh, and ng. 

58. A DOUBLE CONSONANT is a consonant immediate- 
ly repeated in the same syllable; as, ff in ruff] ss in hissing. 

Remark.— X, k, and y, are never (ionbled. 

59. A SUBSTITUTE represents a sound usually repre- 
sented by some other letter or letters; as. e for long a in they. 

60. PHONOLOGY {Phonetics) is the science of the ele- 
mentary sounds uttered by the human voice in speech. 

61. ORTHOEPY treats of the correct pronunciation of 
words. 

62. DIACRITICAL MARKS are characters used to indi- 
cate the sounds of letters. In Webster's Dictionary the fol- 
lowing are used: Macron (-), breve (""), dieresis ("), semi - 
dieresis ( ' ), cedilla ( ' ), tilde(-), caret ( /\ ), suspended bar 

( l Y 

63. LEXICOGRAPHY treats of the signification of words. 

64. PRONUNCIATION is the correct vocal expression of 
words or parts of words. 

65. SPELLING is the distinct expression of the letters or 
sounds of a word, in their proper order. 

66. pRTHOGRAPHIC SPELLING is the expression of 
the letters of a word in their proper order. 

67. PHONETIC SPELLING is the expression of the ele- 
mentary sounds of a word, in their proper order. 

68. ANALYSIS is the separation of a word into its ele- 
ments. 

69. SYNTHESIS is the combination of elements into 
words. 



Orthography. 11 

70. SYNONYMS are words which have nearly the same 
meaning ; as, character and reputation. 

71. HOMONYMS are words pronounced alike, but differ- 
ent in meaning - ; as, berry and bury. 



12 Reading. 



IReabtng. 



1. READING is imbibing the thoughts, feelings, and sen- 
timents of an author. 

2. AUDIBLE READING is imbibing the thoughts, feel- 
ings, and sentiments of an author, and giving utterance to 
the language. 

3. SILENT READING is imbibing the thoughts, feel- 
ings, and sentiments of an author, without giving utterance 
to the language. 

4. ELOCUTION is the art of expressing thought, emotion, 
and passion in an easy, graceful, and effective manner. 

5. SPEAKING is the oral expression of thought and senti- 
ment. 

(3. DECLAMATION is the delivery of another's composi- 
tion. 

7. ORATION is the delivery of one's own composition. 

8. ARTICULATION is the distinct utterance of the ele- 
mentary sounds. 

9. VOCAL EXPRESSION is the utterance of thought, 
feeling, or passion. It embraces Euiphasis, Inflection, Slur, 
Modulation, Monotone, Personation, and Pauses. 

10. EMPHASIS is a stress of voice placed on one or more 
words of a sentence, its object being to give prominence and 
importance. 

11. ABSOLUTE ( Ordinary) EMPHASIS is that which is 
independent of any contrast or comparison. 



Beading. IB 

12. ANTITHETIC (Relative) EMPHASIS is that which 
is used in comparing or contrasting ideas; as, "It is better 
to mend our faults than to hide them. " 

13. INFLECTION is the slide of the voice used in reading 
and speaking. Its divisions are the Rising, the Falling, and 
the Circumflex. 

14. THE RISING INFLECTION is the upward slide of 
the voice. 

15. THE FALLING INFLECTION is the downward 
slide of the voice. 

16. THE CIRCUMFLEX is a union of the two inflections 
on the same syllable or word, beginning either with the fall- 
ing and ending with the rising, or with the rising and ending 
with the falling. It is used to express irony, sarcasm, sneer- 
ing, or contrast. 

17. THE RISING CIRCUMFLEX begins with a falling 
and ends with a rising slide of the voice. 

18. THE FALLING CIRCUMFLEX begins with a rising 
and ends with a falling slide voice. 

19. SLUR is a smooth, rapid, subdued movement of the 
voice over words, phrases and clauses of less importance. It 
is applied to passages expressing contrast, repetition, ex- 
planation, etc. 

20. MODULATION is the variations of the voice in read- 
ing and speaking. It includes Pitch, Force, Quality, and 
Rate. 

21. MONOTONE is an unvaried tone throughout a sen- 
tence or discourse. 

22. CADENCE is the natural dropping of the voice on the 
closing words of a sentence. 

23. PAUJSES are cessations of the voice in reading and 
speaking. 



14 Reading. 

24. GRAMMATICAL PAUSES are those indicated by 
the punctuation marks. 

25. RHETORICAL PAUSES are those used to give clear- 
ness and impressiveness to the parts between which they are 
used. 

26. PITCH is the degree of elevation or depression of 
sound. Its divisions are High, Moderate, and Low. 

27. THE KEYNOTE is the standard pitch of the voice in 
reading and speaking. 

28. THE COMPASS of the voice is its general range above 
and below the keynote. 

29. QUANTITY, in reading and speaking, has reference to 
the loudness or volume of sound ; also to the time occupied 
in uttering a syllable or a word. 

80. FORCE is the degree of energy with which sounds are 
uttered. Its divisions are Loud, Moderate, and Gentle. 

31. STRESS is the application of force to some particular 
part of a syllable or word. Its divisions are Radical, Van- 
ishing, Median, Compound, and Thorough. 

32.' QUALITY OF VOICE has reference to the nature, 
character, or kinds of tone used in speech. They are the 
Pure, Orotund, Tremulous, Aspirated, Plaintive, Guttural, 
and Falsetto. 

33. RATE (Movement) is the degree of rapidity with which 
the voice moves in reading and speaking. Its divisions are 
Slow, Moderate, and Rapid. 

34. GESTURE has reference to the movements of the body 
and its members. 

35. PERSONATION is the representation of the tones and 
manners of other persons. 

36. TRANSITION is change in the manner of expression. 



Reading. 15 

37. A SERIES is a number of particulars following each 
other in the same grammatical construction. 

38. A COMMENCING SERIES is one which begins a 
sentence or a clause; as, " Intelligence, industry, promptness', 
and honesty are virtues that should be cultivated." 

89. A CONCLUDING SERIES is one which concludes a 
sentence or a clause; as, "The leading motives of men are 
honor, wealth, duty, and safety.'' 1 

40. CLIMAX (Mimax, a ladder) is a series of particulars 
so arranged and expressed as to secure a gradual increase of 
impressiveness ; as, "Then Virtue became silent, heart-sick, 
pined away, and died. " 

41. A SIMILE is a direct comparison, and is generally in- 
troduced by like, as, or so. 

42. A METAPHOR is a comparison implied in the word 
itself; as, "Life is an isthmus between two eternities." 

43. AN ALLEGORY is a combination of kindred meta- 
phors, forming a kind of parable or fable. Most of the par- 
ables of Scriptures, the Eightieth Psalm, the Pilgrim's 
Progress, are examples. 

44. PERSONIFICATION attributes to inanimate objects 
some of the qualities of living beings. 

45. ANTITHESIS is the contrasting of objects, to heighten 
their effect; as, " A friend, cannot be known in prosperity ; an 
enemy cannot be hidden in adversity." 

46.' IRONY asserts directly the opposite of the meaning 
intended to be conveyed. It ridicules under the pretence of 
praising. 

47. APOSTROPHE is a turning away from the main dis- 
course to address some person or object, whether present or 
absent, living or dead. 



16 Reading. 

48. A VERSE, or line of poetry, consists of a certain 
number of accented and unaccented syllables arranged ac- 
cording- to some law. 

49. PROSE is the general name for all forms of discourse 
which are not written in verse. 

50. POETRY is discourse written in metrical language. 

51. RHYME is the similarity of sound in the last sylla- 
bles of two or more lines. 

52. BLANK VERSE is verse without rhyme. 

53. A STANZA is a regular division of a poem. 

54. POETIC PAUSES are pauses made in reading poetry, 
required by the measured character of verse. 

55. The FINAL PAUSE is a pause made at the end of a 
line. 

5(3. The CtESURAL PAUSE is a pause in a line. 



Penmanship. 17 



(penmanship. 



1. PENMANSHIP is the art of writing. It is based upon 
movement. 

2. MOVEMENT is the manner of moving the arm, hand, 
and pen in writing. 

3. KINDS OF MOVEMENT: Finger, Fore-arm (Muscu- 
lar), Combined, and Whole Arm. 

4. THE FINGER MOVEMENT is that in which the arm 
and hand rest and the fingers and thumb contract. 

5. THE FORE- ARM MOVEMENT (Muscular) is the ac- 
tion of the fore -arm upon its muscular rest below the elbow, 
keeping the first and second fingers from motion. 

6. THE COMBINED MOVEMENT is the united action of 
the fore-arm and the first and second fingers. 

7. THE WHOLE ARM MOVEMENT is that in which the 
arm moves independent of any muscular rest. 

8. POSITION relates to the manner of sitting at the desk. 
The principal positions used in writing are the Front, the 
Right, and the Left positions. 

9. A LINE is the path of a moving pen. 

10. A STRAIGHT LINE is one which has no change of 
direction. 

11. A CURVED LINE is one which has a continuous 
change of direction. There are two kinds of curved lines, 
— right curve and left curve. 



18 Penmanship. 

12. A RIGHT CURVE is one which bends to the right of 
a straight line uniting its extremities. 

13. A LEFT CURVE is one which bends to the left of a 
straight line uniting its extremities. 

14. PARALLEL LINES arelines which have the same di- 
rection, and are equally distant from each other throughout 
their entire length. 

15. A HORIZONTAL LINE is one which is level, one end 
being no higher than the other. 

16. A VERTICAL LINE is one which leans neither to the 
right nor the left. 

17. AN ANGLE is the opening between two lines meeting 
in a point. 

18. A POINT is the beginning or ending of a line, or the 
angular joining of two lines. 

19. A LOOP is two crossing lines uniting at one end. 

20. A TURN is the merging of one distinct line into an- 
other. 

21. AN OVAL is an egg-shaped figure. 

22. A DIRECT OVAL is one which begins with a descend- 
ing left curve. 

28. A REVERSED OVAL is one which begins with an 
ascending left curve. 

24. THE BASE LINE is the one upon which the letters 
rest. 

25. THE HEAD LINE is the one to which the short let- 
ters extend. 

26. THE INTERMEDIATE LINE is the one to which 
the semi-extended letters extend. 

27. THE TOP LINE is the one to which the extended 
letters extend. 



Penmanship. 19 

28. A SPACE in height is the vertical- height of the small 
letter i. 

29. A SPACE in width is the horizontal distance between 
the straight lines in the small letter u. 

30. CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS.— The twenty- 
six letters have two distinct forms called Small and Capital. 
The capital letters are divided into three classes, — Direct 
Oval, Reversed Oval, and Capital Stem. The small letters 
are also divided into three classes, — Short, Semi- extended, 
and Extended. 

31. THE SHORT LETTERS are thirteen in number, 
and are one space in height, except r and s, which are one 
and one-fourth spaces. They are i, u, w 3 n, m, v, x, o, c, a, 
e, r, and s. 

32. THE SEMI-EXTENDED LETTERS are so called 
because, as to their length, they are between the short and 
the extended letters. ' They are t, d, p, and q, 

33. THE EXTENDED LETTERS, or loop letters, are 
those whose principal form is the extended loop. They are 
h,k, /, b,j, y, g,f, and... 

34. SLANT is the inclination of letters from a vertical 
position. The degree is the unit of measure. The mam 
slant is 52 degrees, and the connective slant is 30 degrees. 

35. PRINCIPLES are the constituent parts of letters. 
Most authors give seven principles, viz: (1) straight line, 
(2) right curve, (3) left curve, (4) extended loop, (5) di- 
rect oval, (6) reversed oval, and (7) capital stem. 

36. PEN HOLDING.— Hold the pen between the first 
two fingers and the thumb, so that it will cross the second 
finger at the root of the nail, the first finger resting on the 
holder about one inch from the point of the pen. Place the 



2Q Penmanship. 

thumb against the holder opposite the first joint of the first 
finger, the holder crossing this finger just m front of the 
knuckle joint. The third and fourth fingers should be 
brought back under the hand, and should slide freely on the 
paper. 



U. S. History. 21 






970. GREENLAND discovered by Gunbiorn, a Nor- 
wegian. 

1001. LEIF ERIKSON and BIORN, of Iceland, ex- 
plored Vinland, Canada, Massachusetts, and other parts of 
North America. 

1492. COLUMBUS discovered America, at the island of 
Guanahani, one of the Bahamas. 

1497. JOHN CABOT discovered the coast of North 
America. 

1498. SOUTH AMERICA DISCOVERED by Columbus. 

1499. AMERIGO VESPUCCI, an Italian, a native of 
Florence, visited America, drew a map of the country, and 
wrote letters giving an account of his discoveries. His let- 
ters were published by a German geographer, who named the 
country in honor of Vespucci. 

1512. PONCE DE LEON, a Spaniard, seeking for a 
fabled fountain of immortal youth, discovered Florida. 

1513. BALBOA, a Spaniard, discovered the Pacific Ocean. 
1518. GRIJALVA, a Spaniard, explored the southern 

coast of Mexico. 

1519-'21. CORTEZ, a Spaniard, conquered Mexico. 

1520. MAGELLAN, a Portuguese in Spanish service, dis- 
covered and sailed through the strait which bears his name, 
named the Pacific Ocean, and made the first circumnaviga- 
tion of the slobe. 



22 U. S. History. 

1524. VERAZZANI, an Italian in the service of the 
French government, explored the eastern coast of North 
America. 

1528. NARVAEZ, a Spaniard, explored part of Florida. 

1534- , 85. CARTIER, a Frenchman, explored and named 
the gulf and river of St. Lawrence. 

1541. DE SOTO, a Spaniard, discovered the Mississippi 

River. 

1565. MELENDEZ, a Spaniard, founded ST. AUGUS- 
TINE, Florida; the first permanent settlement in the United 

States. 

1576. FROBISHER, an Englishman, attempted to find a 
north-west passage to Asia. 

1579. SIR FRANCIS DRAKE, an Englishman, explored 
the Pacific coast. 

1582. ESPEJO, a Spaniard, explored New Mexico, and 
founded SANTA FE ; the second oldest town in the United 
States. 

1584. RALEIGH, an Englishman, sent out an expediticn 
to Roanoke Island. 

1585. LANE'S COLONY, Raleigh's first attempt to form 
a settlement. 

1587. WHITE'S COLONY, Raleigh's second attempt. 
1602. GOSNOLD, an Englishman, explored the coast of 
Massachusetts, and discovered and named Cape Cod. 

1607. JAMESTOWN settled; the first permanent English 
settlement in the LTnited States. 

1608. CHAMPLAIN, a Frenchman, founded Quebec, 
and (1609) discovered Lake Champlain. 

1609. HENRY HUDSON, an Englishman in the service 
of the Dutch, discovered the Hudson River. 



U. S. History. 23 

1614. Settlement of NEW YORK by the Dutch. 

1619. FIRST LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY IN AMER- 
ICA, at Jamestown, Virginia. 

1620. SLAVERY FIRST INTRODUCED by a sale of 
twenty Africans, made by the Dutch to the Georgetown, Vir- 
ginia, planters. 

1620. PILGRIM FATHERS, or Puritans, settled at 
New Plymouth, Mass. ; the first permanent English settle- 
ment in New England. 

1630. BOSTON founded by John Winthrop. 

1634. MARYLAND settled by the second Lord Balti- 
more. 

1636. RHODE ISLAND settled by Roger Williams. 

1637. PEQUOD WAR. John Mason led the colonial 
army. The tribe perished in a day. 

1643. UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES, 
— Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New 
Haven. 

1651. NAVIGATION ACT passed ; enforced in 1660, giv- 
ing England entire control of all the trade of the colonies. 

1664. NEW YORK taken by the English, and the present 
name given. 

1673. NEW YORK re-gained by the Dutch, but lost 
again the next year. 

1675. KING PHILIP, son of Maesasoit, made war on the 
New England settlers; King Philip, after losing most all his 
warriors by death, and his family by capture, fled to his 
home, where he was shot by a faithless Indian. 

1676. BACON'S REBELLION. Cause: Governor 
Berkeley refused Bacon a commission to make war on hostile 
Indians, and Bacon went against them without any commis- 



24 U. S. History. 

sion except his sword. Governor Berkeley declared him a 
rebel, and afterward refused him a commission, although the 
Indians were committing' depredations every day. A rebel- 
lion followed. Bacon died of fever, and his death ended the 
rebellion. 

1(382. WILLIAM PENN, an English Quaker, founded 
the colony of Pennsylvania as an asylum for the persecuted 
English Quakers. 

1689-1697. KING WILLIAM'S WAR, a war between 
England and France, which extended to their American col- 
onies. Closed by the Treaty of Ryswick. 

1692. SALEM WITCHCRAFT, a delusion which pre- 
vailed at Salem, Massachusetts. Twenty persons were hanged 
and many others were tortured into confession, and thus 
saved themselves from punishment. 

1702-1713. QUEEN ANNE'S WAR, caused in Europe 
by an attempt made by England to prevent the union of 
France and Spain. In Europe it was called the War of the 
Spanish Succession. Closed by the Treaty of L T trecht. 

1733. GEORGIA settled by James Oglethorpe, an Eng- 
lishman, whose object was to found an asylum for the perse- 
cuted Protestants of Europe, and for the poor who were im- 
prisoned for debt, and others imprisoned for crime. 

1744-1748. KING GEORGE'S WAR, caused in Europe 
by disputes over the succession to the Austrian throne, in 
which France and England espoused opposite causes. The 
war extended to the French and English colonies in Amer- 
ica. In Europe it was known as the War of the Austrian 
Succession. Closed by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1754-1763. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR, caused by 
the conflicting claims of England and France. 



U. S. History. 25 

17-55. BRADDOCK'S DEFEAT near Fort Du Quesne, 
now Pittsburg. 

1756. ' WAR formally declared by the French. 

1759. CAPTURE OF QUEBEC; Wolfe and Montcalm, 
the commanders, killed. 

1763. TREATY OF PARIS ; France ceded to England 
all her North American possessions east of the Mississippi, 
except the island and city of New Orleans. 

1765. The STAMP ACT passed by Parliament. 

1765. The FIRST COLONIAL CONGRESS met in New 
York. 

1774. The FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS met in 
Philadelphia. 

1775-1781. REVOLUTIONARY WAR, a war between 
England and her American colonies, caused mainly by an at- 
tempt made by England to tax the colonies, without allow- 
ing them representation in the British Parliament. 

1775. Battle of LEXINGTON, the first battle of the war. 

1776. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, July 4; 
proposed by Richard Henry Lee ; prepared by Thomas Jeff er- 

'son, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and 
Robert R. Livingston ; written by Thomas Jefferson. 

1777. BURGOYNE SURRENDERED his whole army to 
Gates, at Saratoga, — the turning event of the war. 

1778. The TREATY OF ALLIANCE with France, by 
which France acknowledged the American Independence, 
and agreed to send a fleet of sixteen vessels and an army of 
4,000 men to assist in the war. 

1779. JOHN PAUL JONES, a Scotch-American, noted 
for his wonderful pluck and skill in war, captured the Se- 
rapis and the Countess. 



26 U. S. History. 

1780. ARNOLD'S TREASON. He sought and obtained 
command of West Point, a very important fortress. He bar- 
gained with General Clinton to deliver up the fortress for a 
general's commission in the British army and ten thousand 
pounds sterling. Major Andre, Clinton's messenger, was 
captured, and Arnold lied to a British vessel. Andre was 
hanged as a spy, October 2. 

1781. WAR ENDED by the surrender of Cornwallis to 
Washington, at Yorktown, October 19. 

1782. John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Henry Laurens, 
and John Jay were appointed commissioners to conclude a 
treaty with Great Britain. November 30, a preliminary 
treaty was signed at Paris. 

1783. The final treaty of Peace, the TREATY OF PARIS, 
signed, September 3, and the United States gained their in- 
dependence. 

1787. The CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION met at 
Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation, but find- 
ing them too weak and defective for revision, formed an en- 
tirely new constitution, which was adopted the same year, 
and submitted to the several States for their ratification. 

1788. The CONSTITUTION ratified by all the States ex- 
cept Rhode Island and North Carolina. 

1789. The FIRST CONGRESS under the new constitu- 
tion met at New York; George Washington inaugurated ; 
Hamilton, Jefferson, Knox, Randolph, and Jay appointed 
members of the cabinet. 

Washington, 1789-1797. 

1791. Vermont admitted into the Union. 

1792. Kentucky admitted into the Union. 

1793. The cotton-gin invented by Eli Whitney. 



U. S. History. 27 

1794. The Whiskey Insurrection in Western Pennsyl- 
vania. 

1796. Tennessee admitted into the Union. 

Adams, 1797-1801. 

1797. Troubles with France. 

1798. Alien and Sedition laws passed. 

1799. Death of Washington at Mt. Vernon 

1800. Capital removed to Washington. 

Jefferson, 1801-1809. 

1802. Ohio admitted into the Union. 

1803. Louisiana purchased from France for $15,000,000. 

1804. Lewis and Clarke expedition; Hamilton-Burr duel. 
1807. First steamboat on the Hudson, invented by Rob' 

ert Fulton. 

1807. Embargo law passed. 

Madison, 1809-1817. 

1811. General Harrison defeated the Indians at Tippe- 
canoe. 

1812. War declared against Great Britain, because of her 
violation of American commercial rights. 

1812. Louisiana admitted into the Union. 

1813. Perry's victory on Lake Erie. 

1814. Treaty of Peace at Ghent, December 21. 

1815. Battle of New Orleans, January 8. 

1816. National Bank established by Congress. 

1816. Indiana admitted into the Union. 

Moneoe, 1817-1825. 

1817. Mississippi admitted into the Union. 

1818. Illinois admitted into the Union. 



28 U. S. History. 

1819. Alabama admitted into the Union. 

1819. Florida purchased from Spain for $5,000,000. 

1820. Missouri Compromise passed; Maine admitted. 

1821. Missouri admitted into the Union. 

1824. General Lafayette visited the United States. 

John Quincy Adams, 1825-1829. 
1826. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson died, July 4. 
1826. The first railroad in the United States completed. 
1828. Revision of the Tariff, the "American System.' 1 

Jackson, 1829-1837. 

1831. James Monroe died, July 4. 

1832. Nullification ordinance passed by South Carolina. 

1832. Black Hawk War began. 

1833. National Funds removed from the U. S. Bank. 

1835. Seminole War begun by Osceola. 

1836. Arkansas admitted into the Union. 

1837. Michigan admitted into the Union. 

Van Buren, 1837-1811. 

1837. Great financial panic. 

1838. 'Anti-slavery agitation. 

1840. Sob-Treasury Bill passed. 

W. H. Harrison, 1841. 

1841. Harrison died one month after inauguration. 

Tyler, 1841-1845. 

1842. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty settled the dispute 
between the United States and Great Britain over the bound- 
ary line of Maine. 

1842. Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island. 



U. S. History. 29 

1843. The first magnetic telegraph erected in the world 
was put up between Washington and Baltimore. 

1844. First public message sent was concerning Polk's 
nomination for the Presidency. 

1845. Florida and Texas admitted into the Union. 

Polk. 1845-1849. 

1846. Mexico declared war against the United States, 
caused by the annexation of Texas, which was claimed by 
Mexico. 

1846. Iowa admitted into the Union. 

1847. The city of Mexico surrendered. 

1848. Treaty of Guadaloupe Plidalgo, by which the 
United States gained the territory now comprised in New 
Mexico, Utah, and California; and the Rio Grande for the 
western boundary of the disputed territory. Mexico received 
$18,250,000 as purchase money. 

1848. Gold discovered in California. 
1848. Wisconsin admitted into the Union. 

Taylor, 1849-1850. 
1850. Death of John C. Calhoun. 

1850. Death of President Taylor, one year and four 
months after his inauguration. 

Fillmore, 1850-1853. 
1850. Clay's "Omnibus Bill" passed. 

1852. Henry Clay and Daniel Webster died. 

Pierce, 1853-1857. 

1853. The Gadsden Treaty— 27,000 square miles of terri- 
tory acquired from Mexico for $10,000,000, and the Mexican 
line established. 



30 U. S. History. 

1854. Kansas-Nebraska Bill passed ; a bill which organized 
the two territories, and gave the inhabitants of each the 
right to decide whether their territory should be admitted 
into the Union as free or slave. This bill abrogated the 
Missouri Compromise, which provided that after 1820 
slavery should be prohibited in all other territory west of 
the Mississippi and north of the southern boundary of Mis- 
souri. 

1857. The Kansas War, caused by a rivalry between the 
pro-slavery and anti-slavery parties. 

Buchanan, 1857-1861. 

1857. The Dred Scott Decision. 

1858. Minnesota admitted into the Union. 

1859. John Brown seized upon the United States Arsenal 
at Harper's Ferry, and proclaimed freedom to slaves in that 
section. He was captured and hanged as a traitor. 

1860. Oregon admitted into the Union. 

1860. South Carolina seceded from the Union. 

1861. Kansas admitted into the Union. 

1861. Southern Confederacy organized at Montgomery, 
Alabama, with Jefferson Davis as President and Alexander 
H. Stephens as Vice-President. South Carolina, Missis- 
sippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Arkan- 
sas, Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina formed the Con- 
federacy. 

Lincoln, 1861-1865. 
1861. War with the Confederate States declared. Causes: 
The slavery agitation and the secession of the Southern 
States were the principal causes. Battle of Bull Run or 
Manassas Junction. 



U. S. History. 31 

1862. Capture of Fort Donelson ; battles of Shiloh, Seven 
Pines, Seven Days, Second of Manassas, Antietam, Perry- 
ville, and Fredericksburg. 

1868. Emancipation Proclamation ; battles of Chancellors- 
ville, Gettysburg, Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge, and the 
surrender of Vicksburg. West Virginia admitted into the 
Union. 

1864. Grant made Lieutenant-General; Battle of the 
Wilderness; Battle between the Kearsarge and the Alabama/ 
Battle of Winchester ; Nevada admitted into the Union ; Sher- 
man 's March to the Sea; Lincoln re-elected. 

1865. Petersburg and Richmond captured; General Lee 
surrendered his army to General Grant at Appomattox 
Court-House, April 9; President Lincoln assassinated at 
Ford's Theatre in Washington, by John Wilkes Booth, 
April 14. 

Johnson, 1865-1869. 

1865. General Johnston surrendered to General Sherman, 
April 26. 

1866. Atlantic cable successfully laid between Ireland and 
Newfoundland, by Cyrus W. Field. 

1867. Nebraska admitted into the Union; Alaska pur- 
chased from Russia for $7,200,000; Tenure-of- Office Bill 
passed ; President Johnson impeached. 

Grant, 1869-1877. 

1869. Pacific Railroad opened. 

1870. The Fifteenth Amendment became a part of the 
Constitution. 

1871. Chicago fire — 8,000 acres devastated. 

1872. Alabama claims settled. 



32 U. S. History. 

1878. Modoc War; Financial panic. 

1876. Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia; Colorado 
admitted into the Union ; the Custer slaughter. 

1877. Electoral Commission. 

Hayes, 1877-1881. . 
1877. Railroad strike; Indian war. 

1879. Resumption of specie payment, 

1880. Treaties (two) with China, respecting commerce 
and immigration. 

Garfield, 1881. 

1881. July 2— President Garfield was assassinated in the 
Baltimore and Potomac depot at Washington by Charles J. 
Guiteau, a disappointed office-seeker. The President died 
after ten weeks of great suffering. 

Arthur, 1881-1885. 

1881. Centennial anniversary of the capture of Yorktown. 

1882. Execution of Charles J. Guiteau. 

1883. The Civil Service Bill passed. 

Cleveland, 1885-1889. 
1S85. Deaths of General U. S. Grant and Vice-President 
Hendricks. 

1886. Presidential Succession Bill passed. 

1887. Chicago anarchists hanged. 

Harrison, 18S9-1893. 

1889. Oklahoma opened for settlement. 

1889. The Conemaugh disaster, or the Johnstown flood. 

1889. Admission of North Dakota, South Dakota, Mon- 
tana, and Washington. 

1890. Admission of Idaho and Wyoming. 



U. S. History. 33 

1890. War with the Sioux Indians begins, and Sitting 
Bull, the great Sioux Chief, is killed. 

1891. Deaths of General AVilliam T. Sherman, George 
Bancroft, and James Russell Lowell. 

1892. Deaths of George William Curtis, John Greenleaf 
Whittier, Cyrus W. Field, and Jay Gould. 

1892. Labor trouble at Homestead, Pennsylvania. 

1898. Deaths of Benjamin F. Butler, John E. Kenna, R. 
B. Hayes, James G. Blaine. 

Cleveland, 1893-1897. 

1893. World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago. 

1893. Business depression. 

1894. The Coxey army led to Washington. 
1894. The Pullman strike in Chicago. 
1894. The Wilson Tariff Bill passed. 

1896. Death of Harriet Beecher Stowe, who wrote Uncle 
Tom^s Cabin. 

1896. Admission of Utah, the forty- fifth State. 

1896. Election of William McKinley and Garret A. Ho- 

bart. 

William McKinley, 1897 — . 

1897. Deaths of George M. Pullman, Neal Dow, Charles 
A. Dana, General J. O. Shelby, and General Francis A. 
Walker. 

1897. The discovery of gold in the Klondike region, on 
the Yukon river, in Alaska. 

1898. Destruction of the United States battle-ship Maine, 
in the harbor of Havana, — two officers and 264 of her crew 
perish. War with Spain declared. 

1898. Deaths of Frances E. Willard and General W. S. 
Rosecrans. 



34 U. S. History. 

The Principal Battles of the Revolutionary War. 



Date. 



1775 Lexington . . 
Ticonderoga 
Bunker Hill 

Quebec 



1776 



Fort Moultrie 



Long Island 

" White Plains. .. . 
' ' Trenton 

1777 Princeton 

" Bennington 

" Brandy wine 

Germantown . . . . 
' ' Saratoga ( 2 ) . . . . 

1778 Monmouth 

Wyoming 

" Cherry Valley. . . 

" Savannah 

1779, Stony Point.. ., . 

[Savannah 

1780- Charleston 

Camden 

" King's Mt'" .... 

1781 Cowpens. 

" Guilford C. H. . . 

' ' Eutaw Springs . . 

Yorktown 



Commanders. 



Parker 

Allen 

Prescott 

( Arnold 
and 

( Montgomery 

Moultrie 



Washington 
Washington 
Washington 
Washington 

Stark 

Washington 
Washington 

Gates 

Washington 
Zeb Butler . 



Robt. Howe . 

Wayne 

Lincoln 

Lincoln 

Gates 

Campbell . . . 

Morgan 

Greene 

Greene 

Washington . 



British. 



Pitcairn . . . American 
De Laplace American 



Army 
Successful. 



Howe 



Carleton. . . 

Clinton. . 
and 

Parker . . 

Howe 

Howe 

Rahl 

Mawhood . . 

Baum 

Llowe 

Howe 

Burgoyne . 
Clinton 
John Butler 

Brant 

Campbell . . 
Johnson . . . 
Prevost . . . 
Clinton. . . . 
Cornwall is. 
Ferguson . . 
Tarleton. . . 
Cornwall is. 

Stuart 

Cornwallis.' 



British 
British 



American 

British 

British 

American 

American 

American 

British 

British 

American 

American 

'British 

British 

(British 

American 

British 

British 

British 

American 

American 

British 

Indecisive 

American 



U. S. History. 35 

The Principal Battles of the War of 1812. 



Dne 



Engagement. 



1812 Detroit 

Constitu.tionGuer 

riere 

Queenstown 

Wasp-Frolic 

Constitution- Java. 
Hornet-Peacock . . 
Chesapeake -Shan- 
non 

Lake Erie 



Commanders. 



1813 



Thames, Canada. 



1814 Chippewa. 



1815 



Lundy's Lane 

Fort Erie 

Bladensbura:. . 



William Hull.. 

Isaac Hull 

Van Rensselaer 

Jones 

Bainbridge 
Lawrence 



British. 



Brock 



Lawrence 
Perry . . . 



Harrison 



Plattsburo- 



Fort McHenry 
New Orleans . . 



Brown 
and 
Scott 
Brown 
and 
Scott 

Gaines 

Winder 

1 Macomb 

< and 

( Macdonough 

Armistead 

Jackson 



Dacres. . . . 

Brock 

Whinyates. 
Lambert . . . 
Peake 



Broke 

Barclay . . . 

( Tec'mseh 
and 

( Proctor 

Riall 



Victor?. 



Riall 



British 

American 

British 

American 

American 

American 

British 
American 

American 



American 



American 



Drummond American 

Ross British 

Prevost 

-I and 1 American 

( Downic I 
Cochrane . . American 
Packenham I American 



36 U. S. History. 

The Principal Battles of the Mexican War. 





Location. 


Commanders. 






American. 


Mexican. 




1346 

t c 

1847 

c c 

I ( 

I I 


Palo Alto 

Resacade la Palma 

Monterev 

Buena Vista 

Cerro Gordo 

Molino del Rey . . 

Chalpultepec .... 


Taylor 

Taylor 

Tayloi 

Taylor 

( Scott 

-] and 

r Twi<?o-s 

Worth. " 

\ Worth 

and 
/ Pillow 


Arista 

La Vega. . 
Ampudia . . 
Santa Anna 

Santa Anna 

Santa Anna 

Santa Anna 


American 
American 
American 
American 

American 

American 

American 



The Principal Battles of the Civil War. 



Battles. 


Union. 


Confederate. 


Army Suc- 


6 

oi 

C 


Location. 


Comman- 
ders. 


Men.* 

80 
30.000 
25.000 
57.000 

11.000 
fc5,000 
50.000 
87,164 

11 o,000 
47,000 

130,000 
90.000 
72,000 
48.000 
60,000 

150,000 


Loss 


Command- 
ers. 


Men. 


Loss- 


2,050 
15,000 

11,000 
8,000 
20,000 
10,000 
13,000 
5,311 
11,000 
12,000 
30,000 
34,000 
20,000 
6,700 

35,000 


cessful . 


1861 
1862 


Fort Sumter 

Bull Run 

Ft. Donelson. .. 
Sbiloh 


Anderson . 
McDowell. 

Grant 

Grant 

McClellan. 
McClellan. 

Pope 

McClellan. 
Burnside. . 
Rosecrans. 
Hooker ... 
Meade 
Grant 
Rosecrans. 
Grant 

Grant 




2,952 

14,666 

5,000 
16.000 
14,000 
12,000 
12,000 
14,000 
17,000 
23,003 

5,000 
19,000 

5,800 

60,000 


Beauregard . 
Beauregard . 
Buckner. 
Johnston and 
Beauregaid 
Johnston, J. E 

Lee 

Lee 

Lee 


7,000 
27,000 
20,000 

40,000 
30,000 
95,500 
80,000 
97,000 
80,000 
35,u00 
60,000 
70,000 
35,000 
94,000 
40,000 

130,000 


Confederate 
Confederate 
Union 


n 


Seven Pines 

Seven Days'. . .. 
Bull Run (2d).. 

Fredericksburg.. 
Murfreesboro. . . 
Chancellorsville 
Gettysburg .... 

Vickshurg 

Chickamauga. .. 

Chattanooga.. . . 

Battles of the 

WiJderness . . . 


Union 

Indecisive. . 
Varied 
Confederate 
Indecisive. . 
Confederate 


1863 


Bra^g 


Union 

Confederate 


1864 


Lee.. 
Pemberton . . 

Bragg 

Bragg 

Lee 


Union 

Confederate 
Union 

Union 



*Authors differ as to the number engaged, and also as to the loss, 
eludes the killed, wounded, and captured. 



The loss in- 



Civil Government. 37 



1. GOVERNMENT is control. Its object is to secure jus- 
tice and progress. 

2. THE GOVERNMENT of a nation or state consists of 
those members who directly exercise "control. 

3. CIVIL GOVERNMENT is control by law, exercised by 
a state over its citizens in a peaceful state. 

4. MILITARY GOVERNMENT is the government of 
men in a state of war. 

Remark. — The three functions of government, to make laws, to 
interpret and apply them, and to execute them, call for three de- 
partments, — legislative, judicial, and executive. 

5. A MONARCHY is a government whose chief authori- 
ty is vested in one person for life. 

6. AN ABSOLUTE MONARCHY is a government in 
which the monarch has unrestrained power. 

7. A LIMITED MONARCHY is a government in which 
the power of the monarch is restricted by a constitution, or 
by laws. 

8. AN ARISTOCRACY is a government in which the 
power is vested in a select body, distinguished by their 
wealth and social position. 

9. A DEMOCRACY is a government in which the power 
is in the hands of the people at large. 



38 Civil Government. 

10. A PURE DEMOCRACY is a government in which all 
the people meet together and make their laws. 

11. A REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY, or Republic, 
is a government in which the people choose representatives 
to make and execute their laws. 

12. A PATRIARCHY is a government in which the chief 
power is exercised by the father over his family or descend- 
ants. This is the oldest form of human government. 

18. A NATION is the whole body of inhabitants of a coun- 
try united under an independent government. 

14. A STATE is a community of free citizens living 
within certain limits, governed by self-imposed laws not in 
contlict with those of the national government. 

15. A SOVEREIGN STATE is one in which all the laws 
are self-imposed. 

16. A CONSTITUTION is the supreme law of a state or 
nation, by which the people control the government. 

IT. A WRITTEN CONSTITUTION is a formal docu- 
ment embodying the fundamental law, prescribing the form 
and limiting the powers of the government. 

18. AN UNWRITTEN CONSTITUTION is one which has 
no definite or distinct form, but consists of customs, prece- 
dents, royal grants, and judicial decisions. 

19. A CHARTER is a grant made by a sovereign to a 
people, securing to them the enjoyment of certain rights. 

20. LAWS are the rules of action established by the su- 
preme power of a state or nation for the purpose of securing 
the rights of the people. 

21. COMMON LAW is law not enacted by legislative 
bodies, but established by custom, and recognized by judicial 
decisions. 



Civil Government. 39 

22. STATUTE LAW is law enacted by legislative bodies. 

23. INTERNATIONAL LAW (law of nations) consists of 
the rules and customs recognized by nations in their inter- 
course with each other. 

24. CRIMINAL LAW is that branch of law which treats 
of criminal offences. 

25. PARLIAMENTARY LAW consists of the rules and 
customs governing parliamentary assemblies. 

Our Government. 

2(3. KINDS OF COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 

(1) PROVINCIAL OR ROYAL GOVERNMENT, or that 
under the direct control of the king, as in New York and the 
Carol inas. 

(2) PROPRIETARY GOVERNMENT, or that in which 
certain persons, called proprietors, exercised the power, as 
in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. 

(3) CHARTER GOVERNMENT, or that in which limited 
powers and rights were vested in the colonists, by a charter 
from the king, as in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Con- 
necticut. 

27. PERIODS OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERN- 
MENT. 

(1) THE REVOLUTIONARY, extending from the time 
of the meeting of the first Continental Congress, September 
5, 1774, to the final ratification of the Articles of Confedera- 
tion. March 1,4781. 

(2) THE CONFEDERATE, extending from 1781 to 
1789, when the present Constitution went into operation. 

(3) THE CONSTITUTIONAL, extending from 1789 to 
the present time. 



40 Civil Government. 

28. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE was a 
document in which the Thirteen English Colonies of America 
declared them and independent. By its adoption 
by the Continental Congress. July 4, 1770, these colonies be- 
came the Thirteen United States of Amei ica 

29. THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION was the 
constitution or body of laws by which the United States 
were governed from 1781 to 1789. They were adopted by 
Congress in 1777. but they did not go into effect until 1781. 

80. THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION met at 
Philadelphia (1787) to revise the Articles of Confederation, 
but it was found that they contained too many defects for 
a successful revision. They gave not enough power to Con- 
gress to strong central government, and left the 
sovereign and independent. Congress could 
not collect a dollar, enlist a single soldier, nor regulate 
commerce. It could suggest, but it could not compel. The 
convention abandoned the original, purpose, and prepared an 
entirely new constitution, the Federal Constitution, which 
was adopted in 1 . 

31. PURPOSES OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 

(1) To form a more perfect union. 

(2) .To establish justice. 

(8) To insure domestic tranquility. 

(4) To provide for the common defense. 

(5) To promote the general welfare. 

(6) To secure the blessings of liberty to the people. 

82. THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT— all legislative 
powers vested in a Congress of the United States, which con- 
sists of a Senate and House of Representatives. 

83. REPRESENTATIVES. 

(1) Chosen by the people every second year. 



Civil Government. 41 

(2) Necessary qualifications — not less than twenty-five 
years of age, seven years a citizen, and must be an inhabi- 
tant of the state in which he shall be chosen. 

(8) Apportioned according- to population. 

(4) Vacancies — filled by a special election. 

84. SENATORS. « 

(1) Number — two from each State. 

(2) Term of office — six years. 

(8) Elected by the state legislatures of the respective 
states. 

(4) Necessary qualifications — must have attained to the 
age of thirty years, must have been nine years a citizen of 
the United States, and must be an inhabitant of the state for 
which he is chosen. 

(5) Vacancies in the Senate are filled by an appointment 
made by the governor, if the Legislature is not in session. 

35. THE VICE-PRESIDENT of the United States is 
President of the Senate. 

86. AN IMPEACHMENT is a written accusation charg- 
ing a civil officer of the United States with treason, bribery, 
or other high crime or misdemeanor. 

Remark. — The House of Representatives has the sole power to 
prepare articles of impeachment, but the Senate has the sole 
power to try all impeachment?. When the President of the 
United Mates is tried, the Chief Justice presides. A two-thirds 
vote is necessary to convict. Judgment extends no farther than 
to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and eajoy 
any office of honor, trust, or profit, under the United States; but 
the offender may afterwards be brought to trial and punishment 
in a court of law, the same as any private citizen . 

87. REVENUE BILLS are bills by which money is raised 
for the government. They must originate in the House of 
Representatives. 



42 Civil Government. 

88. CUSTOMS, or Duties, are taxes levied upon certain 
articles imported from foreign countries. The taxation of* 
exports is prohibited by the Constitution. 

89. A TARIFF is a schedule of dutiable goods, with the 
rate upon each article. 

40. A DIRECT TAX is one levied directly at a given rate 
on property or polls. 

41. AN INDIRECT TAX is one levied on articles of con- 
sumption. 

42. AN EXCISE (internal revenue) is a tax on articles 
manufactured and used within the country, and also on vari- 
ous kinds of business. 

48. NATURALIZATION is the legal process by which 
an alien or foreigner may become a citizen of the United 
States. 

Process: He must appear in court, declare his intention 
to become a citizen, and his purpose to renounce all allegi- 
ance to foreign governments; and after two years he must re- 
appear in open court, and make oath or affirm that he re- 
nounces all foreign allegiance, and will support the Consti- 
tution of the United States. He must have resided in the 
United States for at least five years next preceding the date 
of his final appearance in court. 

44. HIGH SEAS means, in general terms, the ocean, 
whose waters are common to all nations. 

45. LETTERS OF MARQUE AND REPRISAL are com- 
missions from the government, authorizing private individu- 
als to seize the property of a foreign state, or of its citizens 
or subjects, as a satisfaction for an injury committed. 

46. A WRIT OF HABEAS CORPUS is a writ issued by a 
court, directed to a person charged with detaining another 



Civil Government. 43 

unlawfully in his custody, commanding him to bring the 
body of the prisoner into court, and to show cause of his de- 
tention. 

47. A BILL OF ATTAINDER is an act of a legislative 
body, inflicting the penalty of death upon a person accused 
of crime, without a regular trial before a court. 

48. An EX-POST-FACTO LAW is one passed after the act 
to which it refers has been committed, making the act crim- 
inal, which was not so when committed. 

49. EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT— vested in a President 
of the United States. 

50. THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE consists of the whole 
body of electors chosen by the people of the respective states, 
to vote for President and Vice-President. 

51. THE PRESIDENT. 

(1) Commander-in-chief of the United States army and 
navy. 

(2) Term of office — four years. 

(8) Elected by the Electoral College (since 1887, second 
Monday in January). 

(4) His necessary qualifications — natural born citizen, at 
least thirty-five years of age, and fourteen years a resident of 
the United States. 

(5) The Vice President succeeds him, in case of a vacancy. 

(6) The Presidential Succession Law of 1886 provides that 
the members of the Cabinet succeed each other in the follow- 
ing order: Secretary of State. Secretary of Treasury, 
Secretary of War, Attorney-General, Postmaster-General, 
Secretary of Navy, Secretary of Interior, Secretary of Agri- 
culture. . 

52. THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT consists of four 



44 Civil Government. 

grades of courts — the Supreme Court (established by the 
Constitution), the Circuit Court of Appeals, the Circuit Court, 
and the District Court. 
53. FEDERAL JUDGES. 

(1) How chosen — nominated by the President and con- 
firmed by the Senate. 

(2) Term of office — during good behavior, but may retire 
on salary, at the age of seventy years, after having served ten 
years. 

(3) Salaries — Cnief-Justice, $10,500 per year; Associate 
Justices, $10,000; Circuit Judges, $6,000; District Judges, 
from $3,500 to $5,000. 



Geography. 45 



THE EARTH.— Area, 197,000,000 square miles; popula- 
tion, 1,487,900,000; circumference, 25,000 miles; polar di- 
ameter, 7,898; equatorial diameter, 7,924; proofs of its ro- 
tundity, (1) circumnavigation, (2) appearance of approaching 
objects, (3) its shadow on the moon, (4) circular shape of the 
horizon, and (5) shape of all other planets ; the highest moun- 
tain, Himalaya; the loftiest peak, Mount Everest (29,009 
feet); the highest plateau, Thibet (15,000 feet); the highest 
volcano, Aconcagua (23,000 feet); the city on greatest eleva- 
tion, Pasco, Peru (13,673 feet); the largest city, London; the 
largest fresh water lake. Superior ; the largest salt water lake, 
Caspian Sea; the deepest ocean, Pacific; the deepest body of 
fresh water, Lake Baikal; the lowest depression, Dead Sea; 
the largest river, Amazon ; the longest river, Mississippi ; the 
largest inland sea, Mediterranean ; the largest island, Green- 
land; the most densely populated country, Belgium; the 
power having the largest population, Chinese Empire; the 
power having the most extensive territory, Russian Empire. 

2. THE PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS.— Worth America, 
Rocky Mountains, Sierra Nevada, Appalachian; South Amer- 
cia, Andes, Brazilian, Parime, Acaray; Europe. Alps, Can- 
tabrian, Pyrenees, Cevennes, Balkan, Carpathian, Kiolen ; 
Aisa, Himalaya, Kuenlun, Thian Shan, Hindoo Koosh, Altai; 
Africa, Atlas, Kong, Cameroons, Snow, Mountains of the 
Moon. 



46 Geography. 

3. THE LONGEST RIVEES.— North America, Missis- 
sippi, Missouri, Yukon, St. Lawrence, Mackenzie, Nelson, Rio 
Grande, Arkansas, Red, Columbia, Colorado, Ohio; South 
America, Amazon, La Plata, Orinoco, San Francisco, Ma- 
deira, Magdalena; Europe, Volga, Danube, Don, Dnieper, 
Ural, Rhine, Dwina, Petchora; Asia, Yenisei, Yang-tse- 
Kiang, Hoang-Ho, Obi, Lena, Araoor; Africa, Nile, Niger, 
Congo, Zambeizi, Orange, Senegal. 

4. THE LARGEST LAKES.— North America, Superior, 
Huron, Michigan, Erie, Ontario, Winnipeg, Great Salt, 
Deer, Athabasca, Great Slave, Great Bear; South America, 
Titicaca, Maracaybo, Valencia; Europe, Ladoga, Onega, 
Wener, Wetter; Asia, Balkash, Baikal, Poyang, Tonting; 
Africa, Victoria Nyanza, Nvassa, Tanganyika, Tchad, Albert 
Nyanza. 

5. SEAS.— Europe, Mediterranean, "Adriatic, Archipelago, 
Black, Baltic, North, White, Caspian, Irish, Azov, Marmora; 
Asia, Bering, Okhotsk, Japan, Yellow, Eastern, China, Ara- 
bian, Red, Mediterranean, Archipelago, Marmora, Caspian, 
Aral, Kara. 

6. CITIES IN ORDER OF SIZE.— London, Greater New 
York, Paris, Chicago, Canton, Berlin, Vienna, Pekin, Tokio, 
Philadelphia, St. Petersburg. 



Book-keeping. 47 



Bookkeeping. 



1. BOOK-KEEPING is the science of accounts, and the art 
of recording business transactions. 

2. SINGLE ENTRY is that method by which only one en- 
try, a debit or a credit, is usually made for a single trans- 
action. 

3. DOUBLE ENTRY is that method by which at least two 
entries, a debit and a credit, are made for every transaction. 

4. A TRANSACTION is an exchange of values. 

5. A DEBTOR is one who owes another. 

6. A CREDITOR is one who is owed by another. 

7. AN ACCOUNT is a statement of business transactions. 

8. ASSETS, or RESOURCES, comprise all our property, 
including sums owing us in notes and accounts. 

9. LIABILITIES comprise all debts we owe in notes, ac- 
counts, or other obligations. 

10. CAPITAL is the investment in business. 

11. NET CAPITAL is the exesss of resources over liabil- 
ities. 

12. NET INSOLVENCY is the excess of liabilities over 
resources. 

13. NET GAIN is the excess of net capital at closing over 
net capital at beginning. 

14. NET LOSS is the excess of net capital at beginning- 
over net capital at closing. 



48 Book-keeping. 

15. THE DAY BOOK is a book of original entry, in which 
transactions are recorded in order of their occurrence. 

16. THE LEDGER is the book in which all account:-; arc 
properly classified and arranged. 

17. THE CASH BOOK is the book in which all receipts 
and payments of cash are entered. 

18. THE BILL BOOK is the book used for recording all 
notes and bills receivable and payable. 

19. THE INVOICE BOOK is used in keeping a record of 
merchandise on hand at commencement of business, and all 
merchandise bought. 

20. THE SALES BOOK is the book in which a record of 
all sales is kept. 

21. POSTING is transferring debits and credits to. the 
ledger. 

22. OPENING BOOKS is making such entries as are nec- 
essary to show the condition of affairs at the time of begin- 
ning business. 

23. CLOSING BOOKS is making such entries as are nec- 
essary to show the condition of the business, or the financial 
condition of an individual or firm. 

24. BILLS RECEIVABLE include all notes and drafts on 
which we are to receive payment. 

25. BILLS PAYABLE include all notes and acceptances 
which others hold against us. 

2G. GENERAL RULES FOR JOURNALIZING. 

RULE 1. The Proprietor is credited f or the sum of his 
resources at the beginning of business, for all subsequent in- 
vestments, and for his net gain in the business. 

RULE 2. The Proprietor is debited for the sum of his lia- 
bilities at the beginning of business, for what he draws from 
the business, and for his" net loss in the business. 



Book-keeping. 49 

RULE 3. Persons are debited when they become indebted 
to us, or when we get out of their debt. 

RULE 4. Persons are credited when we become indebted 
to them, or when they get out of our debt. 

RULE 5. Property (Cash, Merchandise, Bills Payable, 
Bills Receivable, etc. ) is debited when we receive it, and 
credited when we part with it. 



50 General History. 



(Seneral THfetor\>. 



HISTORY is any record of past events. 

ANCIENT HISTORY begins with the earliest nations and 
ends with the fall of the Western Roman Empire, 476 A. D. 

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY, or the history of the Middle 
Ages, extends from the fall of Rome to the discovery of 
America, 1492 A. D. 

MODERN HISTORY begins with the discovery of Amer- 
ica, and continues to the present time. 

THE PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY is an examination 
into the causes and effects of events. 

THE CHIEF SOURCES OF HISTORY: Authentic rec- 
ords, oral traditions, historical poems, monuments and 
ruins, coins and medals, and inscriptions on marbles. 
CHRONOLOGY. 
Asia. 

B. C. 

4004. The Creation of the World. 

3800 (?). The history of Chaldea (early Babylonia) be- 
gins with Sargon I. as king. 

3000 (?). China founded by a band of Turanian wan- 
derers. 

2300 ( ? ). Babylon founded by Nimrod, a grandson of Ham. 

2286 (?). Kudur-Nakhunta, a king of Elam, conquered 
Chaldea. 



General History. 51 

2000 (?). Babylon became a noted center, and later gave 
the name Babylonia to the Chaldean cities. 

1250. (?). Assyria, a province of Babylonia, conquered the 
Babylonians, and held them in servitude for over six cen- 
turies, though they often revolted. 

747. The Babylonians gained a temporary independence 
over Assyria. 

625. The Babylonians under Nabopolassar, with the aid 
of the Medes under Cyaxares, revolted, captured Nineveh, 
and completed the final overthrow of Assyria. 

604. Nebuchadnezzar succeeded his father, Nabopolassar, 
as king of Babylonia. 

586. Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Jerusalem and carried the 
Jews into Babylonian captivity. 

558. Cyrus, a Persion king under the Median monarch, 
revolated, then conquered Media, and founded the Medo- 
Persian empire. 

538. The overthrow of the Babylonian empire by Cyrus. 

A. D. 

0. Birth of Christ. 
83. Christ crucified. 

70. Titus, a Roman general, destroyed Jerusalem. 
570. Birth of Mohammed, the great phophet of the Arabs. 
622. The Hegira, or the flight of Mohammed from Mecca 
to Medina. 

1258. The Saracen empire overthrown by the Turks. 

1400. Japan discovered by Europeans. 

1854. Treaty between the United States and Japan. 

Africa. 

B. C. 

3000 (?). The beginning of Egyptian history with Menes 
as first king of the first dynasty. 



52 General History. 

2700 (?). The kings of the Fourth Dynasty, or the Pyra- 
mid builders, began their reign in Egypt. 

2300 (?). The Twelfth Dynasty began, and Egypt reached 
its greatest height in civilization. 

2100 (?). The Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings, began their 
reign. 

1650 (?). Amosis, the first king of the Eighteenth Dynas- 
ty, began his reign. 

1400 (?). The beginning of the Nineteenth Dynasty— Seti 
I. and Kameses II, the greatest. 

880. Carthage founded by Queen Dido, of Tyre. 

340. Egypt loses her independence by the power of the 
Persians under Artaxerxes HI. 

332. Alexander the Great, king of Macedon, wrested 
Egypt from Persia, and the rule of the Ptolemies began, end- 
ing with Queen Cleopatra. 

30. Egypt became a Roman province on the fall of 
Cleopatra. 
. A. D. 

670. Egypt conquered by the Saracens. 

1517. The Turks conquer Egypt. 

179S. Napoleon invaded Egypt. 

1877. Henry M. Stanley crossed the continent. 

Europe. 

B. C. 

1556. Greece founded by Inachus. 

1556. Athens founded by Cecrops. 

1500. Thebes founded by Cadmus. 

1194 (?). The Trojan War— recorded in Homer's Iliad, 
waged by the Greeks to punish Troy for refusing to return 
Helen, the beautiful wife of Menelaus, who had been stolen 



General History. 53 

by Paris, son of the king of Troy. Troy was taken and 
burned. Helen was returned to her husband. 

753. Rome founded hj Romulus, who was followed by 
Numa, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, 
Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbus, as kings. 

509. Rome became a republic, and the struggle between 
the patricians and plebeians, begins. 

492. Darius sends out his first expedition under Mar- 
donius against Greece. 

490. Second Persian expedition, under Datis and Arta- 
phernes, resulted in their defeat by the Athenians and their 
allies, under Miltiades, in the battle of Marathon. 

480. Xerxes defeats Leoniclas in the battle of Ther- 
mopylae; Themistocles defeats Xerxes in the naval battle of 
Salamis. 

479. The Grecian army under Pausanias defeats the Per- 
sians under Mardonius, at Platea. 

431. Beginning of the Peloponnesian War, a struggle for 
supremacy between Athens and Sparta. 

390. Rome taken and burned by the Gauls- under Brennus. 
Invaders retire, and Rome is afterwards rebuilt. 

371. The Thebans under Epaminondas defeat the Spartans 
under their king, Cleombrotus, in the battle of Leuctra. ' 

362. Battle of Mantinea. Victory and death of Epami- 
nondas. 

264. The beginning of the first of the three Punic wars 
between Rome and Carthage. Lasted 23 years. 

247. Hamilcar made commander of the Carthaginians, 
followed by Hasdrubal, then Hannibal. 

218. Second Punic War begins. Lasted 16 years. 

216. The battle of Cannae — Hannibal defeats Varro, the 
Roman consul. 



54 . General, History. 

202. Battle of Zama — the Romans under Seipio Africanus 
defeat the Carthaginians under Hannibal. End of the second 
Punic War. 

149. Third Punic War begins. 
_, 140. Carthage destroyed by the younger Seipio and the 
lands become the Roman "Province of Africa." 

59. Pompey, Csesar, and Crassus form the First Trium- 
virate at Rome. 

55. Britain invaded by Julius Caesar. 

49. Civil war between Pompey and Csesar begins. 

48. Battle of Pharsalus —Csesar defeats Pompey. 

44. Assassination of Csesar by Casca, Brutus, Cassius, and 
others. 

48. Second Triumvirate at Rome— Antony, Octavius, and 
Lepidus. 

42. Battle of Philippi and suicide of Brutus and Cassius. 

31. Battle of Actium — Octavius (Augustus Caesar) de- 
feats Antony and Cleopatra, and Rome becomes an empire. 

A. D. 

64. Burning of Rome by order of Emperor Nero. 

312. Constantine the Great becomes sole Emperor of 
Rome. 

336. Constantine makes Constantinople the capital of 

his empire. 

395. The Roman Empire divided into the Eastern Em- 
pire, at Constantinople, and the Western Empire, at Rome. 

410. Rome taken by Alaric, king of the Goths. 

455. Sack of Rome by the Vandals under Genseric. 

476. The downfall of the Roman Empire of the West, and 
Odoacer, a chief of the Goths, became king. 

486 ? Clovis, king of the Franks, conquers Gaul. 



General History. 55 

732. Battle of Tours — the Saracens under Abderrahman 
defeated by the Franks under Charles Martel. 

752. Pepin, the Short, becomes king of the Franks. 

771. Charlemagne becomes sole monarch of the Franks. 

827. Egbert becomes the first king of England. 

871. Alfred ascends the English throne. 

877. England conquered by the Danes. 

1016. Canute, of Denmark, becomes king of England. 

1041. Danes expelled from England. 

1066. Battle of Hastings — the English under Harold de- 
feated by the Normans under William, who was then 
crowned as king of England. 

1096. Peter the Hermit leads in the first of the Crusades 
to recover the Holy Land from the Turks. 

1215. Magna Charta granted by King John. 

1330. Gunpowder first used in war. 

1336. Beginning of the Hundred Years' War between 
England and France. 

1346. The English under King Edward defeat the French 
under King Philip VI., in the famous battle of Crecy. 

1356. Battle of Poitiers — the English under the Black 
Prince defeat the French under King John, who was taken 
prisoner. 

1429. Siege of Orleans — the English defeated by the 
French under Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans. 

1488. Printing by means of movable types of wood in- 
vented by Koster, a Dutch mechanic. 

1441. Printing by means of movable types of metal in- 
vented by Gutenberg, a German. 

1453. The Turks capture Constantinople, and the East- 
ern Empire of Rome is ended. 



56 General History. 

1455 Commencement of the Wars of the Roses, a contest 
between the adherents of the Houses of York and Lancaster 
for the English crown. 

1485. Battle of Bosworth Field— Richard III. slain, and 
Henry VII. , the representative of Lancaster, crowned. 

1517. Reformation commenced by Martin Luther. 

1558. Elizabeth becomes Queen of England. 

1588. Defeat of the Invincible Armada under the Duke 
of Medina Sidonia, by the English under Howard, Drake, 
and Seymour. England saved from Spanish invasion. 

1605. The Gunpowder Plot— Guy Fawkes and other Ro- 
man Catholics conspire to blow up Parliament. 

1042. Beginning of the Civil War in England— King 
Charles I. supported by the nobles, the clergy, and the gentry; 
Parliament supported by the Puritans and the cities. 

1645. Battle of Naseby— the decisive battle— Cromwell 
defeats King Charles. 

1646. King Charles takes refuge with the Scots, who give 
him up to Parliament. 

1649. Charies I. of England beheaded— the only king of 
England executed. 

1654. Cromwell made Lord Protector of England. 

1660. Charles II. becomes king of England. 

1760. George III. ascends the English throne. 

1805. Battle of Trafalgar— the English fleet under Nelson 
defeated the French and Spanish under Villeneuve and 
Gravina. England saved from a French invasion. 

1815. Battle of Waterloo — the French under Napoleon 
Bonaparte defeated by the allied armies of Russia, Austria, 
Prussia, and England, under Wellington. 

1837. Victoria becomes Queen of England, 



General History. 57 

1853. Beginning of the Crimean War, a struggle over dis- 
puted territory between Turkey and Russia. 

1870. Beginning of the Franco-Prussian War. 

1871. King William proclaimed Emperor of Germany. 
1877. Beginning of the Russo-Turkish War. 

1882. Death of Gambetta, of France. 

1891. Death of Charles Stewart Parnell. 

1892. Death of Tennyson, Poet Laureate of England — 
succeeded by Alfred Austin.- 

. 1895. The Cubans rebel against Spain. 

1897. War between Greece and Turkey, which resulted 
in the humiliation of Greece. 

1898. War between the United States and Spain. 
1898. Death of William Ewart Gladstone. 



58 ■ Physiology. 



)J)b\>8ioloo^ 



1. THE THREE KINGDOMS OF NATURE are the min- 
eral, the vegetable, and the animal. 

2. ORGANIC BODIES are those having organs by which 
they grow; as, plants and animals. 

3. INORGANIC BODIES are those which are naturally 
destitute of life; as. air, water, minerals. 

4. AN ORGAN is a portion of an organized body, having 
some special function, or duty. 

5. ANATOMY treats of the structure, form, number, and 
position of the organs of the body. 

6. PHYSIOLOGY treats of the functions, or duties, of the 
different organs. 

7. HYGIENE is that department of knowledge which 
treats of the preservation of health. 

8. A SYSTEM is several organs similar in structure taken 
together. 

9. THE BONES are the frame work of the body, and serve 
(1) to preserve the shape of the body ; (2) to protect some 
important organs; and (3.) to furnish a firm surface for the 
attachment of the muscles. 

10. THE BONES ARE COMPOSED of animal matters 
and mineral matters. 

11. OSSIFICATION is the process by which animal matter 
(jelly) is changed into bone by the deposition of calcareous 
matter. 



Physiology. 59 

12. THE PERIOSTEUM is a fibrous membrane covering 
the exterior surface of the bones, except at the joints. 

18. THE MEMBRANES of the body are divided into the 
mucous and the serous membranes. 

14. MUCOUS MEMBRANES line all the cavities and pas- 
sages of the body which have external communication, and 
are continuous with the skiD, and with each other. 

15. SEROUS MEMBRANES line all the cavities of the 
body which are without any external communication. 

16. MUSCLES are animal tissues, usually known as lean 
meat. There are more than five hundred muscles in the hu- 
man body. 

17. A TENDON is a hard and strong cord by which a 
muscle is attached to a bone. 

18., THE SKIN is the natural covering of the body, and is 
the organ of touch. It is composed of two layers, — the epi- 
dermis and dermis. 

19. A GLAND is an organ which secretes and pours forth 
a liquid which passes out through tubes. 

20. THE GLANDS OF THE SKIN are of two kinds, —the 
sweat glands, and the sebaceous, or oil glands. 

21. A SWEAT GLAND consists of a tube, which is coiled 
into a ball, ascending to the surface of the skin. The secre- 
tion is called sweat, or perspiration. 

22. THE SEBACEOUS GLANDS (oil glands) are found 
in the dermis, usually about the roots of the hair, being most 
abundant in the scalp and face. They secrete an oily sub- 
stance, which annoints the hair and keeps the skin soft and 
moist. 

23. DIGESTION is the process by which food in the ali- 
mentary canal is so changed that it can be absorbed by the 
lymphatics and the blood vessels. 



60 Physiology. 

24. THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION' are the mouth, 
tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, cesop/iagvs, stomach, 
intestines, laeteals, thoracic duct, liver, and pancreas. 

25. THE TEETH in man are of two sets,— the temporary 
(twenty in number) and the permanent (thirty-two in num- 
ber). Most all animals are provided with two sets of teeth. 

2(3. THE SALIVARY GLANDS consist of three glands 
on each side of the mouth. They secrete a liquid called 
saliva. 

27. THE PHARYNX, or throat, is a muscular, mem- 
braneous sac, about four inches long, leading to the <rso- 
phagus. 

28. THE (ESOPHAGUS, or gullet, is a muscular tube, 
about nine inches long, extending from the pharynx to the 
stomach. 

29. THE STOMACH is a large pouch situated in the left 
side of the abdomen, and extending from the (esophagus to 
the small intestine. It will hold from one to two quarts; 
but it may be distended so as to hold as much as three 
quarts. 

30. THE INTESTINES are a tube about thirty feet in 
length, filling a greater part of the abdomen. They arc di- 
vided into the small intestine and the large intestine. 

31. THE LACTEALS are small tubes, or vessels, for con- 
veying chyle from the intestines to the thoracic duct. 

32. THE THORACIC DUCT commences just below the 
diaphragm, and ascends in front of the spinal column to the 
apex of the chest, where it turns downward and forward, and 
ends in the left sub-clavian vein. It is about the diameter 
of a goose quill. 

33. THE LIYER is the largest' and busiest gland of the 



Physiology. 6 L 

body. It is of a reddish brown color, tinged with yellow. 
Its principal function is to secrete bile. 

34. THE PANCREAS is a gland about six inches long, 
situated behind the stomach. It secretes pancreatic juice. 

35. THE PROCESSES OF DIGESTIONS are(l) mastica- 
tion and insalivation, (2) deglutition (swallowing), (3) 
chymification, (4) chylification, and (5) absorption. 1. 
The food is taken into the mouth, where it is ground fine by 
the teeth and mixed with the saliva — {mastication and insali- 
vation). 2. It then passes from the mouth through the 
pharynx and the oesophagus into the stomach — (deglutition). 
3. In the stomach it is thoroughly mixed with the gastric 
juice, which converts it into a pulpy substance of a dark 
color, called chyme — (chymification). 4. It then passes 
through the pyloric orifice into the small intestine, where it 
is subjected to. the intestinal juice, the bile, and the pan- 
creatic fluid, which finish the dissolution of all nutritive 
food, and change it into a milky-like fluid called chyle — 
(chylification). 5. The chyle is absorbed from the small in- 
testine by the lacteals and the blood vessels, and the lacteals 
pour their contents into the thoracic duct, which leads to the 
sub-clavian vein — (ah sorption ). 

r 36. CIRCULATION is the regular flow of the blood 
through the different blood vessels of the body. 

37. THE BLOOD is the circulating fluid of the body. It 
is made up of a transparent fluid called plasma, and minute 
circular bodies called corpuscles^ which float in the plasma. 
The corpuscles are of two kinds, — the red and the white. 

38. THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION are the heart, ar- 
teries, veins, and capillaries. 

39. THE HEART is a hollow muscular organ, situated be- 



62 Physiology. 

tween the lungs in the thorax. In the adult man it is about 
the size of the closed fist. It is divided by a muscular par- 
tition into two chambers, theright and the left heart. Each 
chamber is divided into two cavities, the auricle and the 
ventricle. 

40. THE ARTERIES are tough cylindrical tubes which 
convey the blood from the heart to different parts of the' 
body. 

41. THE VEINS are clyindrical tubes which carry the 
blood from the different parts of the body to the heart. 

42. THE CAPILLARIES are minute'blood vessels which 
connect the termination of the arteries with the commence- 
ment of the veins. 

43. THE COURSE OF THE CIRCULATION: The dark, 
impure blood is forced from theright ventricle into -the 
pulmonary artery, and thence to the capillaries of the lungs. 
After being purified in the lungs, it is conveyed through the 
pulmonary vein to the left auricle, then through the mitral 
valve into the left ventricle. This is called the pulmonary 
circulation. 

By a contraction of the left ventricle the blood passes 
through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta; and 
through its branches the blood is conveyed to all parts of 
the body, from which it returns through the capillaries and 
veins to the right auricle. This is called the systemic circu- 
lation. 

44. THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION are (1) the air- 
passages, through which the air enters and leaves the lungs-; 
(2) the lungs, in which the blood is exposed to the action of 
the air; and (3) certain muscles used in breathing. 

45. THE AIR PASSAGES include the nostril chambers, 



Physiology. 63 

the pharynx (throat), the laryna, the trachea, the bronchia, 
and the air-cells. 

46. THE LUNGS are two in number, and lie inside the 
thorax (chest), one on each side of the heart. They are elas- 
tic, spongy masses, full of tiny cavities, called air-cells. 

47. THE DIAPHRAGM is a thin, broad, circular parti- 
tion, separating the abdomen from the chest. 

48: RESPIRATION is the breathing of air into (inspira- 
tion) and out of (expiration) the lungs. 

49. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM is composed of the brain, 
the spinal cord, the ganglionic system, and the nerves. 

50. THE BRAIN is the great center of the nervous sys- 
tem, and it is the seat of the mind. It is a pulpy mass found 
in the cavity of the skull, and is made up of two parts, — the 
cerebrum, which occupies the upper and anterior parts of the 
cranium, and the cerebellum, the lower and smaller portion. 

51. THE SPINAL CORD is the cylindrical, long mass of 
nerve-matter found in the spinal canal. It extends from the 
pons to the second lumbar vertebra. 

52. THE PONS is the bridge of nerve fibres connecting 
the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the spinal cord. 

53. THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA is the upper enlarged 
part of the spinal cord. It is about one inch long, and lies 
within the skull. 

54. THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM (Ganglionic) consists 
of two nerves, one on each side, containing many ganglia. 
They extend the whole length of the spinal column. 

55. NERVES are small white cords of nervous matters, 
used to conduct the nervous influence. 

56. THE SPECIAL SENSES are the means by which the 



6-± Physiology. 

mind becomes acquainted with external objects. The organs 
of the special senses are the tongue, nose, ear, eye, and shin. 

57. THE TONGUE is the organ of taste. It is composed 
of muscles, and is situated within the arch of the lower jaw. 

58. THE NOSE is the organ of smell. It is composed of 
cartilage covered by muscle and skin. The nasal passages 
are separated from each other by a partition consisting of 
bone and cartilage. The olfactory nerves end in the mucous 
membrane lining the air passages of the nose. 

59. THE EAR is the special organ of hearing. It is com- 
posed of the external ear, the middle ear, and the internal ear. 

60. THE EXTERNAL EAR consists of a tube about one 
inch in length, which spreads out into a broad expansion seen 
on the exterior of the head. 

61. THE MIDDLE EAR, or Tympanum, is an air cham- 
ber in the temporal bone. It contains three small bones,— 
the malleus (hammer), the incus (anvil), and the stapes 
(stirrup). 

62. THE INTERNAL EAR consists of chambers and ca- 
nals, hollowed out in the temporal bone. Its three parts are 
the vestibule, the semi-circular canals, and the cochlea. 

63. THE EYE, the organ of sight, includes the eyeball, 
the adjusting machinery, and the protecting organs. 

64.';THE EYEBALL has three membranes, or coats, — the 
sclerotic coat (the, white of the eye); the choroid coat, next 
within ; the retina, the innermost coat. 

65. THE CORNEA is the front part of the sclerotic coat. 

65. THE IRIS is a flat disk, whose circumference, is con- 
nected with the choroid coat. It surrounds the pupil, and 
gives the blue, gray, or black color to the eye. 



Physiology. 



65 







< 


f Frontal. 
j 2 Temporal. 

£7a^(8).' 2 £ e F ieta !- 
Sphenoid. 

Ethmoid. 

L Occipital. 

(2 Superior Maxillary 

J Inferior Maxillary 


The Head 


(22). < 




2 Nasal. 

Face (14) . { \ Malar. 

v ' j 2 Lachrymal. 
2 Turbinated. 
! 2 Palate, 
I Vomer. 
( Hammer, 
^ars (3). ] Anvil. 
( Stirrup. 












. 






r 


( 7 Cervical Vertebrae. 






Spinal Column (24) { 12 Dorsal Vertebrae. 








( 5 Lumbar Vertebrae. 






Bibs 


(24)— 14 True, 6 False, 4 Floating. 


The Trunk 


(54). « 


The 


Sternum. 






Hyoid bone. 








i 2 Innominate. 
Pelvis (4). -j Sacrum. 












: 


( Coccyx. , 






r 


Shoulder. j g^vicle. ■ 
( Scapula. 
1 Humerus. 


Upper 






Arm. - Radius. 


Extremities 


(64)/ 




( Ulna. 
i 8 Carpal. 
Hand. 5 Metacarpal. 






i 


( 14 Phalanges. 






: 


f Femur. 


Lower 
Extremities 


(60).- 




Trn | Patella. 
^^'1 Tibia. 

1 Fibula. 

( 7 Tarsal, 
i'bc^. { 5 Metatarsal. 






i 


1. 14 Phalanges. 



66 Arithmetical Problems. 



arithmetical problems* 



1. f of the difference between two numbers is lC;the 
smaller number is 12, what is the greater? Ans. 36. 

2. A has | of $8560, which is 24 times B's money; how 
much money has B? Ans. $2,568. 

3. What is the smallest sum of money for which I could 
hire workmen for one month, paying cither $30, $48, or $60 
a month? Ans. $240. 

4. On what sum of money is $100 the difference between 
the interest calculated at 4 per cent, per annum and that at 
34, per cent, for every 10 months? Ans. $50000. 

5. 24+12x13— 3=what? Ans. 177. 

6. 24+12 X (13— 3) = what? Ans. 144. 

7. (24+12) X 13— 3=what? , Ans. 465. 
Jieinar/:.— The signs X and -^cannot extendtheir power, forward 

or backward, beyond a -+- or a — , without the aid of the paren- 
thesis . 

8. A has $2,000; f of his money+$100 is 4" of B '*; whai 
sum has B? Ans. $2800. 

9. At What rate per cent, per annum will any sum of 
money double itself at simple interest in 30 years? 

Ans. 3|. 

10. What number is that from which if we deduct ~ 7 - 

of itself and -|- of the remainder, there will be 28 left? 

Ans. 63. 

11. A and B can do a piece of work in 2 days, A and C in 



Arithmetical Problems. 67 

3 days, and B and C in 4 days; in what time can C alone do 
the work? Ans. 24 days. 

12. A lot 320 feet long and 210 feet wide contains a gravel- 
walk 6 feet wide just inside. Find the area of the walk. 

Ans. 690f sq. yd. 

13. A loaned B $50 at 6 per cent. ; on payment $75 was 
due. Find the time. Ans. 8 yr. 4 mo. 

14. A man can row a boat down stream 12 miles per hour, 
and up stream 6 miles per hour ; how far can he go down and 
return in 24 hours? Ans. 96 mi. 

15. A man owning 40 per cent, of an iron foundry sold 25 
per cent, of his share for $1246.50; what was the value of the 
foundry? Ans. $12465. 

16. A's money is 20 per cent, more than B's; then B's 
money is how many per cent, less than A's? Ans. 16|. 

17. A walk 9 feet wide surrounds a square garden ; the 
area of the walk being -\ of an acre, what is a side of the in- 
closed square? - Ans. 293£ ft. 

18. Bacon which costs 12 cents per pound wastes 15 per 
cent: before it is sold; at what price per pound must it be 
sold to gain 25 per cent. ? Ans. 17 ~ cts. 

19. A ladder 82 fet long stands close against a building ; 
how far must it be drawn out at the bottom that the top may 
be lowered 2 feet? Ans. 18 ft. 

20. I spent 25 per cent, of my money, then 10 per cent, of 
the remainder, and had $567 left; what had I at first? 

Ans, $840. 

21. Find the difference between the compound interest and 
the annual interest of $500, at 6 per cent., for 3 yr. 3 mo. 

Ans. $0.19. 

22. Omitting days of grace, find the difference between the 



68 Arithmetical Problems. 

bank discount and the true discount of $960, for 3 yr. 6 mo., 

at 8 per cent. Ans. $58.80. 

23. What is the height of a tree which casts a shadow 36 
feet long, if a staff 8 ft. 6 in. cast a shadow 12 ft, 9 in.? 

Ana. 24 ft. 

24. What sum invested in U. S. 6 per cent, bonds at 105, 
will produce an annual income of $600 in currency, when 
gold is worth 120? Ana. $8750. 

25. I have a 60-day note of $300 with which to buy wheat, 
at 75 cts.per bushel ; after discounting the note in bank at 10 
per cent,, how many bushels can I buy? Ans. 393 bu. 

26. I wish to borrow $725 from a bank, for 60 days ; for 
what sum must I give my note, if the rate of discount is 8 
percent? Ans. $735.29. 

27. How many gallons of water will exactly fill a vessel 
which holds 110 bushels of grain? Ana. 1024 gal. 

28. A factor sold wheat on a commission of 2 per cent., for 
$2548 ; he then invested the net proceeds in corn at 50 cents a 
bushel, after retaining a commission of 4 per cent. How 
many bushels of corn did he buy? Ana. 4802 bu. 

29. A trader sold two cows at $30 each, gaining 25 per cent, 
on one, losing 25 per cent, on the other ; what was his gain or 
loss by the transaction? Ans. $4 loss. 

30. A cube has an area of 2400 sq. in. ; find its solid con- 
tents. Ans. 8000 cu. in. 

31. The principal is $400, the interest $137.60, and the 
time 4 yr. 3 mo. 18 da. ; what is the rate? 

Ans. 8 per cent. 

32. If | of a farm is worth $1800, what is the value of 
-f- of it? Ans. $2000. 

33. A, B, and C dine. on 8 loaves of bread; A furnishes 5 



Arithmetical Problems. 69 

and B 3 ; C pays them 18 cents ; how should A and B divide 
the money? • Ans. A 15| c, B 2|c. 

34 In what time will $126.50 give $2.53 interest at 5 per 
cent. ? Ans. 4 mo. 24 da. 

35. Find the asking price of a hat, which cost $1.20, so as 
to abate 6| per cent., and still make a profit of 25 per cent. 

Ans. $1.60. 

36. 100 eggs are placed in a~ right line, exactly 2 yards 
apart, the first being 2 yards from a basket ; how far will a 
man travel who gathers them up singly, and places them in 
the basket? Ans. 11 mi. 152 rd. 4 yd. 

37. A window sill is just 40 feet from the ground ; how far 
from the wall of the house must a ladder 50 feet long be 
placed to reach the sill? Ans. 30 ft. 

38. Find the diagonal of a room 40 feet long, 30 feet wide, 
12 feet high. Ans. 51.4+ft. 

39. How large a square can be cut out of a circular board 
whose circumference is 100 inches. Ans. 22.5+in. 

40. How many feet of lumber in 21 planks, each 16 feet 
l'ong, 18 inches wide, and 2 inches thick? Ans. 1008 ft. 

41. Divide the square root of 57600 by the cube root of 
512, and multiply the quotient by the cube of 4. 

Ans. 1920. 

42. A sphere is 4 feet in diameter ; find its contents. 

Ans. 38.5104 cu. ft. 

43. The area of a circle is 490.875 square feet; what is the 
diameter? Ans. 25. 

44. If a ball 3 inches in diameter weigh 9 pounds, what is 
the weight of a ball 4 inches in diameter? Ans. 21-J lb. 

45. Compare the areas of two circles whose diameters are 
as 4 : 6. Ans. 16 : 36. 



70 Arithmetical Problems. 

46. I bought a hor.se for $70 cash, and sold him for $84, at 
a credit of 10 months: reckoning the interest at 6 per cent., 
how much did I gain? Ans. $10. 

47. The boundaries of a square and circle are each 04 feet; 
find the difference between the areas. 

Ans. 69.93 sq. ft. 

48. Find the solid contents of a cone, diameter of base 
being 20 feet, altitude 30 feet. Ans. 3141.6 en. ft. 

49. A cubical cistern holds 200 gallons; what is its depth? 

Ans. 35 in. 
50. The solidity of a sphere is 33.5104 cu. ft. ; what is the 
diameter? Ans. 4 ft. 

51. Find the cost of fencing a square lot, containing 160 
acres, at the rate of $4 per rod. Ans. $2560. 

52. A general wishes to place 7225 men in the form of a 
square; how many must he put in each line? Ans. 85. 

53. Find the area of a triangle whose sides are 16, 18, and 
20 feet. - " Ans. 136+ sq. ft. 

54. A field containing 8 a. 72 sq. rd. is twice as long as it 
is wide ; find the cost of fencing it at 20 cents per rod. 

Ans. $31.20.. 

55. A ladder 65 feet long, placed with its foot 33 feet from 
a wall, reaches within 7 feet of the top. How near the wall 
must the foot of the ladder be brought that it may reach the 
top? Ans. 16 ft. 

56. A rectangular field 84 feet long and 79 feet wide has 
a walk 8 feet wide all round it and two of equal width 
through the center, one from side to side, the other from 
end to end. What will it cost to gravel the walks at 2 cents 
a square foot, and sod the rest at 27 cents a square yard? 

Ans. $165.72. 



Arithmetical Rules. 71 



Brief Bvitbntetical IRules. 



Diameter of a circle x3.1416=the circumference. 

Circumference of a circle -4-3.1416=the diameter. 

Diameter of a circle X.8862=the side of an equal square. 

Diameter of a circle X.7070=the side of an inscribed 
square. 

Radius of a circle X 6. 28318=the circumference. 

The square of the diameter of a circle X. 7854= the area. 

The square of the radius of a circle X 3. 1416 =the area. 

The square of the circumference of a circle X. 07958 = the 
area. 

The area of a circle Xl. 2732 =the square of the diameter. 

The area of a circle -k 7854=the square of the diameter. 

The area of a circle -i-3. 1416= square of the radius. 

Half the circumference of a circle Xi its diameter =the 
area. 

The surface of a sphere X 1-6 of its diameter = solidity. 

The circumference of a sphere X the diameter =the surface. 

The square of the diameter of a sphere X 3. 1416=the surface. 

The square of the circumference of a sphere X. 3183 =the 
surface. 

The cube of the radius of a sphere X 4. 1888= the solidity. 



72 Arithmetical Rules. 

The radius of a sphere X 1.1547=: the side of an inscribed 
cube. 

The cube of the diameter of a sphere X. 5236 =the solidity. 

The cube root of the volume of a cube = its edge.- 

The areas of similar plane figures are to each other as the 
squares of their like dimensions. 

The volumes of all similar figures are to each other as the 
cubes of their like dimensions. 

The area of a triangle = the base X 4 of the altitude. 

When the three sides of a triangle are given, from half the 
sum of the three sides subtract each side separately, then 
take the square root of the continued product of the half- 
sum and three remainders, to find the area. 

The perimeter of the base of aright prism X the height = 
the convex surface. 

The circumference of the base of a cylinder X by the alti- 
tude =the convex surface. 

The area of the base of a cylinder or a prism X the alti- 
tude =the solid contents. 

The perimeter or circumference of the base X -| the slant 
height=the convex surface of a pyramid or cone. 

The area of the base X -J the altitude=the solid contents of 
a pyramid or a cone. 



Grammar. 



73 



CI g^oop^ of t^e partf of gpeeeh/. 



THE NOUN. 



( ( Class, f Masculine, 

ri j Abstract, f n -, Feminine, 

u i Collective, GW*Vj Common, 



NOUNS < 



[Participial. 
Properties [ 



Proper. 



Neuter. 

I First, 
Person, \ Second, 
/ Third. 

7,-r 7 <i Singular, 

f Nominative, 

^ j Possessive, 

case. \ objective, 
^Absolute. 



74 



ADJECTIVES 



Grammar. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 
( Common, 
Descriptive, < Proper, 

/ Participial. 



Article, 



Definitive. 



Pronomi- 
nal: 



v Numeral. 



Personal, ; 



THE PRONOUN. 

\ L 
Simple, thou, 

/ he, she, it 



\ Definite, 
/ Indefinite. 

( Demonstrative, 
Distributive, 

/ Indefinite. 

i Cardinal, 
Ordinal, 
r Multiplicative. 



PRONOUNS -< Relative, 



Interrogative. \ which, 
/ wh* ' 



i Myself, 
Comp'd. < thyself, 

/ herself, himself, itself. 

f Who, 
I which, 
Simple, [ what, 
| that, 

* I as. 

' Whoever, whoso, 
whosoever, 
Comp'd. whichever, whichsoev- 
I er, 

t whatever, whatsoever. 
C Who, 



i at. 

( Gender, 

t, ! Person, 

Properties^ Number 

^ Case. 



Grammar. 



75 



VERBS. 



'As to use: 
Copulative, 
Transitive, 
Intransitive 

As to for hi: 
Regular, 
Irregular. 

Properties ■{ 



THE VERB. 

(\i ■• \ Active, 
Voice, ro • 

' Passive. 



Sub- Classes: 
Defective, 
Redundant, 
Auxiliary. 



( Indicative, 
j Subjunctive, < 
Mode, I Potential, 
Imperative, 
^Infinitive. 

( Present, 
f Absolute, n Past, 
| ( Future. 

Tense, <( 

( Pr. Perfect, 
[Relative. <. Past 



Future 



Number. 
^ Person. 



( Present, 
Participles \ Perfect, 

f Compound. 



ADVERBS 



THE ADVERB. 

f Of Time, 
Of Place, 
Of Cause, 
Of Manner, 
Of Degree. 

also: 

Modal, 
Interrogative, 

, Conjunctive. 



76 



Grammar. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 

f Copulative, 

n j- j. ) Adversative, 

^l Alternative. 

{ Illative. 

CONJUNCTIONS [ 

[ Causal, 

. . ; 7- , ] Temporal, 
subordinate. , r i 
j Local, 

t Of manner or degree. 
A SYNOPSIS OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 
( Declarative, 

, , j Interrogative, 

As to use, . T , • 

' | Imperative. 

i Exclamatory. 

i Simple, 
As t<> form. Complex, 
I / Compound. 

ELEMENTS. 
i Simple, 
As to form, Complex, 
/ Compound. 



SENTENCES 



As to ( bmj. 



i. Words. 
bmposition, ■ Phrases. 



I Ch 



ELEMENTS { 



auses. 



\ Subject, 



Principal, p^^ 



As to rani,'. [ 



Objective, 

Adjective, 

Subordinate. ■' Adverbial, 

I Connective, 

I Attendant. 



Grammar. 77 



1. THOUGHTS are expressed by means of words. 

2. LANGUAGE is the means by which we express our 
thoughts. 

Remark.— There are about 80 languages and more than 3,600 
dialects. All these different languages came from the same par- 
ent speech. 

8. NATUKAL LANGUAGE is instinctive methods of 
communicating thought or feeling. 

4. ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE is that which must be 
learned before it can be used. 

, 5. VOCAL LANGUAGE is that which is produced by the 
organs of speech. 

6. WRITTEN LANGUAGE is the expression of thought 
by means of written or printed characters. 

7. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE is the language spoken 
by the people of England. It is spoken also by the people 
of the United States and in other parts of the world. 

8. THE GRAMMAR of any language is a description of 
the principles and usage of that language. 

Remark.— Grammar does not make language; it is simply a rec- 
ord of the usage of the language, as exemplified by the best 
speakers and writers. 



78 Grammar. 

9. ENGLISH GRAMMAR treats of the principles and 
usage of the English language. 

Remark. — The English language contains over 100,000 words, 
which are the elements of the language. They are merely signs 
of ideas. In forming sentences, we combine different kinds of 
ideas, and therefore we use different kinds of words. In the En- 
glish sentence, words have nine different uses: some are names 
of objects; some affirm; some describe or point out; some are 
used instead of names; some express action, but have not the 
power of predicating; some tell how action is performed, etc.; 
some show relation; some merely connect; and some express joy, 
sorrow, or surprise. With reference to their meaning and use 
words are therefore divided into nine classes, called Parts of 
Speech. 

10. ETYMOLOGY treats of the classification, derivation, 
and properties of words. 

11. A NOUN is a word used as a name. 

12. A COMMON NOUN is a name which may be applied 
to all objects of the same kind; as, boy, horse, town, nation, 
virtue. 

18. A PROPER NOUN is a name given to persons or par- 
ticular objects, and cannot be applied to all others of the 
same kind ; as, Susan, Boston, June, Monday, the Alps. 
14. QUESTIONS ON THE NOUN. 

Name four classes of the common nouns. When does a 
common noun become a proper noun? Give examples. 
When does a proper noun become a common noun? Give ex- 
amples. Name the properties of the noun, and define all the 
important terms under each. How determine the person of 
a noun? Give rule for the formation of the plurals of the 
following: book, church, boy, army, turkey, folio, hero, 
wife, muff, 9, y, father-in-law, basis. What is the gender 
of a collective noun when the individuals it denotes are taken 



Grammar. 79 

as a whole? What, when taken separately? Give examples. 
What is the gender of the names of objects noted for firm- 
ness, power, boldness, etc., when personified? Noted for 
weakness, gentleness, beauty, etc.? Give examples of each. 
In the sentence, "Webster is his name," Webster is in the 
neuter gender. Why? Use the noun John in each of the 
cases. Illustrate the various uses of nouns in the nominative 
absolute case. 

15. AN ADJECTIVE is a word limiting a noun or pro- 
noun. 

16. A DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVE limits a noun or pro- 
noun without expressing any quality of the noun or pronoun. 

17. A DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVE limits a noun or 
pronoun by denoting some quality belonging to the noun or 
pronoun. 

18. QUESTIONS ON THE ADJECTIVE. 
Give the divisions of the definitive adjectives. Of the de- 
scriptive adjectives. Does a predicate adjective always de- 
scribe its subject? In the sentence, "He made the ball 
round," to what does round belong? What is comparison? 
Explain the different degrees of comparison. Illustrate by 
use of sentences the difference between the participial adjec- 
tive and the participle. Name the three articles. Write sen- 
tences illustrating the various classes of the adjective. 
Write a sentence containing an adjective used as a noun. 

19. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun. 

20. PERSONAL PRONOUNS show by their form the per- 
son of their antecedents. 

.21. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS are words used to repre- 
sent both the posse sor and the object possessed. 

22. A RELATIVE PRONOUN is one which joins a sub- 
ordinate or modifying clause to its antecedent. 



80 Grammar. 

23. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS are those pronouns 
which are used in asking questions. 

24. QUESTIONS ON THE PRONOUN. 

What is the antecedent of a pronoun? What properties 
have the pronouns? Name all the sub-classes of the pro- 
noun?. Name the pronouns of each class. Write a sentence 
containing- a simple relative pronoun. A compound relative 
pronoun. When is as a relative pronoun? Illustrate the 
difference between restrictive clauses and explanatory 
clauses. What are indefinite or responsive pronouns? Give 
examples. 

25. A VERB is a word used to express action, being, or 
state. 

26. A COPULATIVE VERB is used to join a predicate to 
a subject. 

27. A TRANSITIVE VERB expresses transitive action, 
and requires an object to complete its meaning. 

S. AN INTRANSITIVE VERB is one that expresses ac- 
tion, being, or state, simply, and does not require an object 
to complete its meaning. 

29. A REGULAR VERB is one which forms its past indic- 
ative and perfect participle by adding d, or eel to the pres- 
ent indicative. 

30. AN IRREGULAR VERB is one which does not form 
its past indicative and perfect participle by adding d or eel to 
the present indicative. 

31. A DEFECTIVE VERB is one in which some of the 
principal parts are wanting. 

32. A REDUNDANT VERB is one which has more than 
one form for the past tense and perfect participle. 

33. QUESTIONS ON THE VERB. 
What are the properties of the verb? Define each. What 



Grammar. 81 

verbs have voice? How many voices? Name the modes of 
the verb, and define each. What are the signs of the respec- 
tive modes? How many tenses? Which tenses are absolute 
and which are relative? Define each tense. Give the num- 
ber of tenses in each mode. What are the principal parts of 
the verb? What are auxiliary verbs? Write them. What 
is conjugation? How many forms of conjugation? What is 
the synopsis of the verb? What is a unipersonal verb? Con- 
jugate the verb to rule; How is the passive voice formed? 
How is the progressive form conjugated? The empatic 
form? How is a verb conjugated negatively? 

34. QUESTIONS ON THE ADVERB. 
What is an adverb? Name the classes of adverbs, and give 
examples under each class. How are many adverbs of man- 
ner formed? How distinguish between adjectives and ad- 
verbs? What adverbs admit of comparison? What will an 
adverb generally be found to modify? 

35. QUESTIONS ON THE PREPOSITION. 
What is a preposition? What is the antecedent term of 

relation? The subsequent term? What is an adjunct? When 
a preposition has no object, what does it become? Give ex- 
amples. Give examples of prepositions used as conjunctions. 
Write a sentence containing a preposition having a participle 
for its antecedent term of relation. 

36. QUESTIONS ON THE CONJUNCTION. 
What is a conjunction? Name the two general classes, and 

define each. Name the sub-classes. Illustrate the use of than. 
Write a sentence containing correlative conjunctions. Write 
a sentence containing a subordinate conjunction. 

37. QUESTIONS ON THE INTERJECTION. 
What is an interjection? How may an interjection usual- 



82 Grammar. 

ly be known? Use what as an interjection. Mention the 
different emotions expressed by interjections. Write a sen- 
tence containing an interjection expressing exultation; won- 
der; sorrow; merriment. How is an interjection parsed? 



A KEY 

TO DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS IN HARVEY'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note. — The first number indicates the page ; the second, 
the number of the sentence, the comment following the num- 
bers. 

The author's aim is not to give the parsing and the an- 
alysis in lull, lint to discuss very briefly only the most diffi- 
cuilt points. 

42-1. Doctor is in apposition with the first Johnson, and 
lawyer, with the second. 

12-2. Queen Elizabeth is in the possessive case, and modi- 
fies reign. Brian is the object of the preposition in. 

42-6. Quadrupeds, fowls, fishes^ reptiles, and insects, are iu 
the objective ease, in apposition with classes. Qlasess is neu- 
ter gender; quadrupeds, fowls, etc., are common gender. 

42-7. Army is neuter, singular. 

42-8. J 'lotos and Aristotles are proper nouns,, used as 
common nouns, and are nominative to are. 

42-9. Mr. Squires is in the objective ease, object of have seen; 
bookseller and stationer are in apposition with Mr- Squires. 

53-3. But a may be parsed as a single adjective, modifying 
vapor. Some authors parse but as an adverb, modifying is. 

53-5. Sad and lonely are predicate adjectives after feel, and 
limit I. 



Gkammae. 83 

53-6. Look is the copula, and green is a predicate adjec- 
tive, limiting- the subject fields. 

53-11. Such a limits the subject law- Disgrace is a noun, 
and is used as the predicate of the sentence. 

53-13. Powers is in the absolute case. Ye is the subject of 
the sentence. 

53-17. None is an adjective used as the subject of the sen- 
tence. But great equals except great, and modifies none. 
Unhappy belongs to great. 

53-18. But a is an adjective; or hut may be parsed as an 
adverb, modifying is. 

53-19. To make a, long story short is a complex attendant 
element. Sho?'t belongs to story. Broke up is a complex 
verb; or up may be parsed as an adverb. 

54-21 Have been lashed is modified by round and round cir- 
cle, by for years and by (during) session. 

54-22. Shade is the subject, fl'ds is the copula, and gray is 
a predicate adjective, and belongs to shade. Dim belongs to 
shade. 

54-23. Back in an adverb, modifying can call. To mansion 
modifies can call. 

54-24. Current is the subject of the principal clause, and 
glides is the predicate. 

62-2. Book is the direct and sister the indirect object of 
gave. Some grammarians would parse sister, and all similar 
constructions, as the object of the preposition to understood. 

62-3. To-day is a noun in the objective case without a gov- 
erning word expressed. Some authors supply the preposi- 
tion; others parse such expressions as adverbs of time. 

62-5. Yourself is in the nominative case, in apposition 
with you. 



84 Grammar. 

62-9. On way modifies see. 

62-10. (To) make and (to) compare are objects of dare, ac- 
cording- to some authority; but the verb dare (venture) is 
not used in a transitive sense in this sentence. It is better 
to parse these infinitives as having the construction of ad- 
verbs, modifying dare. Measuring and comparing modify 
they. 

62-11. Count i'i! is in the absolute case, and land is in appo- 
sition with country, or with thee. It is the subject, modified 
by the clause (that) I .sing. Some authors claim that the 
clause, (that) I sing, is the subject of the sentence, and that 
it is an expletive. Is of thee is the predicate. The second of 
thee is an attendant element. 

62-12. Thou great Instructor is a complex attending ele- 
ment. Instructor is in apposition with Thou. Feet is the in- 
direct object of teach, and way is the direct object. 

68-3. That is the subject of forsake As is a relative pro- 
noun, and agrees with its antecedent sue//, or persons under- 
stood, in gender, person, and number; it is nominative to 
the verb keep. Some grammarians would parse as as a con- 
junction. 

68-4. There is an expletive adverb. Class is the subject, 
and is. the predicate of the principal clause. As is a con- 
junctive adverb. Those belongs to persons understood, and 
persons understood is the object of the verb dislike under- 
stood. 

69-6. Whatever is equivalent to anything which, or that 
which. The sentence may read, "Anything which is, is 
right;" or, "That which is, is right." Authors differ in 
their methods of parsing whatever. In following Harvey, 
we should parse the antecedent of which as nominative to 
the second is, and which as nominative to the first is. 



Grammar. 85 

69-7. Make the sentence read, "That which ye shall ask in 
my name, that will I do." The first that is in the- absolute 
case by pleonasm; and that which ye shall ask in my name is 
a complex attendant element. 

70-6. Whom is in the objective case after ( not of) to be. 
Harvey says that a noun or pronoun following the infinitive 
to be, is in the same case as a word which precedes it. 

70-9. Lesson is the subject, and which is the predicate. 

70-10. You is the indirect, and to parse is the direct object 
of the verb told. 

70-2. In the sentence, "I do not know who is in the gar- 
den, " who is an interrogative pronoun, according to Har- 
vey; but some authors would parse who as a relative, when 
used in this sense, agreeing with its antecedent understood; 
others would parse it as a responsive pronoun, because it is 
used in making replies to cpaestions. The introduction of 
an antecedent converts an interrogative into a relative. 

70-3. In the sentence, "Tell me vjhat I should do," what 
may be parsed as an interrogative pronoun, object of should 
do; or as a double relative, equivalent to the thing which, or 
the things which. 

71-7. Which darkened the room modifies the preceding 
clause. 

71-4. Worth is a predicate adjective, and belongs to the 
subject ounce. Ounces is in the objective case without a gov- 
erning word expressed ; or the object of a preposition un- 
derstood. Some authors would parse worth as a prepo- 
sition, showing the relation between ounces and is. 

71-8. Ye understood is the subject. Some prefer to make 
one the subject. One may be parsed as an adjective used as, 
a noun, nominative case in apposition with ye. 



86 Grammar. 

71-9. More is a noun, object of could ask; or it is an adjec- 
tive, modifying what. 

71-10. Who is the subject, and is is the predicate of the 
principal clause. Base is an adjective, and belongs to who. 
So is an adverb, modifying base. That is a coiij unction,, fol- 
lowed by he understood. The subordinate clause modifies 
bast : or so, according to good authority. Would be is the 
copula, and bondman is the predicate. 

71-11. The sentence is equivalent to I sj?eak as (I would 
speak) to wise men. As is a conjunctive adverb. As to may 
be parsed as a complex preposition, unless the sentence be 
changed. What may be parsed as a double relative. 

71-12. Theirs is a possessive pronoun, nominative case; or 
it may be parsed as a possessive pronoun, equivalent to 
their right. Ax is a conjunction, an index of apposition 
(Harvey); or a preposition (Holbrook). The first men is in 
the possessive case in apposition with theirs, or their, if the 
equivalent of theirs be given (Harvey). The second men is 
in the objective case after to be understood (See 70-6); or 
object of did esteem. (See Harvey's Grammar, page 154, re- 
mark 3. ) 

71-13. Philosophizing is a present participle, and belongs 
to Socrates. That could be desired modifies the noun death 
understood. 

71-14. Popular Applause is a proper noun, by personifica- 
tion; feminine gender, second person, singular number, 
absolute case. 

71-15. The first what modifies cares understood; the second 
what modifies cares. 

71-16. Boom is the direct and relics the indirect object of 
give. To slumber modifies room. 



Grammar. 87 

71-17. Spirit is the direct object of (to) share. Independ- 
ence is a proper noun of the masculine gender, second per- 
son, singular number; it is in the absolute case. Lord is in 
the absolute case, in apposition with Independence. 

71-18. On is an adverb, modifying (will) plod. As before 
is equivalent to as (he did chase) before. Before is an ad- 
verb, modifying did chase understood. As is a conjunctive 
adverb. Yet is a conjunction. 

81-1. Tolling is a present participle, and belongs to bells. 

81-2. 'Opened is a perfect participle, and belongs to letter. 

81-3. Gambling is a participial noun ; it is neuter gender, 
third person, singular number, nominative case. 

81-4. Running \ jumping and skating are participal nouns, 
objects of the verb like. 

82-6. Having sold is a compound participle, and belongs 
to I. 

82-9. Having been captured belongs to general. 

82-10. Remaining is a participial noun ; it is the subject of 
the sentence. 

82-11. Said and marked are perfect participles, and belong 
to words. Rut is an adverb, and modifies once. The second 
but modifies softly. At all is an adverbial phrase, modifying 
'the participle marked. 

82-12. Hardened belongs to man. Complete, an adjective, 
and announced, a participle, belong to acquittal. 

82-18. Washing belongs to ripple, and lapping belongs to 
muter. 

82-14. Toiling, rejoicing and sorrowing are present par- 
ticiples, and belong to he. Attempted belongs to something. 
The second something is in apposition with the first, and is 
modified by the participle done. 



88 Grammar. 

87-20. Kingdom is in apposition with hell. 
.88-21. Save is n preposition, /is used for me by poetic 
license. Save the waves and I (me) modifies nothing. 
Some authors would parse save as a subordinate conjunc- 
tion, and waves and 7 as nominative to may hear understood. 
112-1. Plowing is a participial noun, object of commenced. 
112-6. Should hare been is an irregular, copulative verb. 
112-7. Be hallowed is a verb, regular, transitive, passive 
voice, imperative mode, present tense; it is of the third per- 
son, singular number, to agree with its subject name. (See 
page 86, remark 8). 

112-9. To d<> is a verb, irregular, transitive, active voice, 
infinitive mode, present tense, and is the object of the verb 
couldlearn. 

113-13. Were mustered out may be parsed as a complex 
transitive verb; or out may be parsed as an adverb. 

113-19. The first two lines form a complex attendant ele- 
ment. Lain is in the absolute case, by pleonasm. (To) 
tricJde is in the infinitive mode, and depends upon it. The 
second law is nominative to preserves and guides. Earth 
and sphere are -objects -of Reserves. (See page 154, remark 
3). Some authors claim that sphere is in apposition with 
earth; others would parse it as a noun in the objective case, 
after to be understood. 

113-21. Wisest, brightest and meanest may be parsed as ad- 
jectives used as nouns, in apposition with Bacon; or they 
may be considered adjectives, modifying man understood, 
which is in apposition with Bacon. 

^ 120-1. Happily is an adverb of manner, and modifies 
lived. Very is an adverb of degree, and modifies happily. 
120-2. Why is an interrogative adverb, and modifies do 



Grammar. 89 

look. So is an adverb of degree, and modifies sad. Sad is 
a predicate adjective. 

120-3. Whervi&-& conjunctive adverb; it connects the two 
clauses, and modifies comes. 

120-5. Then is an adverb of time, and there is an adverb of 
place ; they modify signed. 

120-6. Again and again is an adverbial phrase, and modi- 
fies have read. 

120-7. So is an adverb of manner, and no more is an ad- 
verbial phrase, modifying the verb will do. The words form- 
ing the phrase may be parsed separately. 

120-9. Perchance is an adverb of 'manner (Harvey); of 
possibility (Quackeubos); of doubt (Nash); it modifies are. 

120-10. Whither is an interrogative adverb, and modifies 
has gone. 

120-12. Just is an adverb, and modifies the phrase, over 
the hill yonder, or over hill. 

120-13. Henceforth is an adverb of time; it modifies (to) 
fear. 

120-14. Before is a conjunctive adverb; it modifies left. 

120-15. Not is a modal adverb, modifying will he. 

120-16. JSlot modifies have seen. Since is a conjunctive 
adverb modifying returned. 

120-17. Doubtless modifies are, or ye are the people. 

125-1. With shows the relation between me and will go. 
Into shows the relation between garden and will go. 

125-2. In shows the relation between house and are. Man- 
sions is the subject, and are is the predicate. 

125-3. Over shows the relation between river and went; 
tit rough between cor nf elds and went; and into between woods 
and went. 



90 Grammar. 

125-4. As to is a complex preposition; ii shows flic rela- 
tion between affair and am satisfied. 

125-5, But shows the relation between Mary and all. 

125-6. from among is a complex preposition; ii shows the 
relation between Alps and floivs. Out is an adverb, modify- 
ing flows. 

125-9. Aboard shows the relation between ship and went. 

125-10. Goddess is in apposition with Night. From, shows 
the relation between throne and stretches. In shows the rela- 
tion between majesty and stretches. Over shows the relation 
between world mid stretches. Stretches forth may he parsed 
as a complex verb ; or forth may be parsed as an adverb, 
modifying stretches. 

130-1. And is a co-ordinate conjunction; it connects am 
and argii, . The second and connects argue and convince. 

130.-2. Than is a subordinate conjunction; it connects 
sooner and the subordinate clause. Or connects you and m<rm. 

130-8. But is a co-ordinate conjunction, and connects the 
two members. 

180-4. Neither and ;/"/• are correlative conjunctions; 
neither introduces the sentence, and nor connects military 
and civil. Some authors claim that nor connects pomp 
and -pomp. 

131-5. That is a subordinate conjunction, introducing the 
predicate clause. 

131-6. But is a co-ordinate conjunction, connecting the 
twc members. 

181-7. The adjectives, alone, solitary, and idle, belong to ■/. 
And connect solitary and idle* 

131-8. Both and and are correlative conjunctions; both in- 
troduces the sentence, and and connects ties and dictates. 



Grammar. 91 

131-9. There is aD expletive. For connects was and the 
subordinate clause. 

131-10. Than is a subordinate conjunction ; it joins the 
subordinate clause to more; or to more highly. 

131-11. On and on is a complex adverb, modifying 
marches. Inflicting and suffering are present participles, 
and belong to soldier. 

131-14. As if is a subordinate conjunction, and connects 
the two clauses. 

131-17. As to he hated, etc.. modifies so; or frightful. She 
understood is the subject of this subordinate clause, and needs 
is the predicate. To he hated is an adverbial element, and 
to he seen is an objective element, modifying needs. But, in 
the second line, is an adverb, modifying to he seen. The sec- 
ond couplet is equivalent to "We, familiar with her face, 
first endure, then pity, then embrace, (if she is) seen too 
oft. 1 ' Endure, pity and embrace form the compound predi- 
ate. Familiar is an adjective, and. belongs to we. Oft mod- 
ifies (is) seen, and too modifies oft. 

133-4. To freeze limits sight; or it limits the subject it. 

133-11. What and farewell are interjections. Could keep 
in is a complex verb; or in may be parsed as an adverb. 
Life is the object of the verb could keep. 

133-3. Far is an adverb, modifying beyond sea. 

133-6. Oks and ahs are used as nouns; they are in the ob- 
jective case. 

133-8. Union is the antecedent of which. 

134-11. The subordinate clause modifies so. 

134-12. But shows the relation between calm and- joy. 

134-13. To hekind modifies cruel. Only modifies to he 
hind. Kind and cruel belong to I. Some authors claim that 



92 Grammar. 

the phrase to he kind modifies nvust he; and that only modi- 
fies kind. 

134-15. All over is an adverbial phrase, modifying covers. 
Though's and all are objects of covers understood. Some au- 
thors claim that these- words are in apposition wi'xhman. 

134-16. Many a belongs to morning. Morning is in the ob- 
jective case without a governing word. (To) ring depends 
upon copses. 

134-18. As if is a subordinate conjunction, and connects 
acted and the subordianate clause. 

134-19. Contention is the subject, and to find is the pre- 
dicate, of the first sentence. Whilst is a conjunctive adverb, 
and modifies is living. The clause, Whilst an author is yet 
I i ring modifies estimate. 

134-20. Other belongs to it. Other is modified by than it 

ix. 

134-21. So and as are correlative conjunctions. As intro- 
duces the subordinate clause. 

134-22. Like is a preposition, and shows the relation be- 
tween men and, delighted. Some authors would parse like as 
an adjective, belonging to he; and men as the object of the 
preposition to understood. 

134-23. To know is nominative to is. To say is the object 
of to know. What is a double relative pronoun. Poets, 
sages, martyrs, reformers, and loth are in apposition with 
men. Some authors consider nouns of such construction as 
in the objective case after the infinitive copula to he under- 
stood. 

134-24. That done is an abridged proposition, and modifies 
turned and clung (Irish); but some authors consider this 
phrase as an attendant element. That is in the absolute case 
with done or (being) done. Done belongs to that. As is a 



Grammar. 93 

relative pronoun; its antecedent is smile; it is the object of 
the two verbs, had seen and could forget. 

134-25. To live is the subject, and to die is the predicate. 
Behind is an adverb, modifying leave. Not modifies is. 

134-26. But is an introductory conjunction. War is nom- 
inative to is. Which is the object of at. 

134-27. Whoever is equivalent to he to ho; he is the subject 
of the second thinks, and who of the first thinks To see is 
the object of thinks, and piece is the object of to see. 

134-28. JSfiobe is in the absolute case by pleonasm. Some 
authors consider Niobe in apposition with she. Childless 
and crownless belong to she. Some authors consider stands 
the predicate; others consider stands the copula, and childless 
and crownless predicate adjectives. In her voiceless woe mod- 
ifies she (Irish); or stands (Adams); or being understood (Eu- 
bank). Urn is nominative to is understood (Raub) ; or ob- 
ject of the participle holding understood (Irish) ; or iri the, 
absloute case with the participle being understood (Adams) ; 
or the object of Arts understood (Eubank). Ago modifies 
was scattered, and long modifies ago. 

134-29. Back is an adverb, modifying can call. Honor's 
and Death are masculine, and Flattery is feminine gender. 

135-30. Oiolet is the subject, and drops and holds is the 
compound predicate, of the first member. Atheism, is in ap- 
position with owlet. Sight is in the absolute case by exclam- 
ation. Sailing is a present participle, and belongs to owlet. 
Forth (an adverb), on wings, athwart noon, from hiding -place, 
modify sailing. Close (closed) may be parsed as an adjec- 
tive, belonging to them; ov it may be parsed as an adverb, 
modifying holds. He understood is the subject, and cries out 
is the predicate, of the second member. Out may be parsed 



94 Grammar. 

as an adverb. W7u r, is it is the object of cries out, or of criw. 
Hooting belongs to he understood. 

135-32. Dry is an adverb, modifying clanked. Harness is 
the-subject of clanked. All (wholly) is an adverb, modify- 
ing- the prhases to left and (to) right. Some authors con- 
sider ail the subject of clanged; others consider it as an ad- 
verb, modifying clanged; others parse it as an adjective be- 
longing- to cliff. Jets is the antecedent of that, Sharj)rS?m't- 
ten is a participle, modifying that. Some authors parse it 
as an adjective. 

135-33. Shadow is the subject of came wandering, oy of 
came. Some authors parse wandering as a participle in the 
predicate with aw,. belonging to shadow; others parse it 
as an adverb modifying came. Like is a preposition, and 
shows the relation between angel and shadow; or it is an ad- 
jective, followed by the preposition to understood, and be- 
longs to shadow. With shows the relation between hair and 
angel. Dabbled is a participle, and belongs to hair. Out 
and aloud are adverbs, modifying 'shrieked. The second word 
Clarence is in apposition with the first. A 6W/?.<? equals farc 
'•"""• Furies is a proper noun by personification; it is 
feminine gender, second person, absolute case by direct ad- 
dress. 

185-3-1. There is an expletive in each of the first three 
lines. Win!,' is an adjective, belonging to heart. Lil;<< is a 
preposition, unless comes understood be supplied; it then 
becomes a conjunctive adverb. 

135-35. Record is the object of Irft; and columns, statues, 
nmis, streets, and cities are in the same case by apposition. 
Strmon is a participle, and belongs to column*. Fallen, 
cleft and heaped are participles, and belong to statues. Over- 



Grammar. 95 

thrown is a participle, and belongs to host. The first where 
may be considered a conjunctive adverb joining- its clause to 
left; or it may be parsed as a relative adverb (Rani)), relat- 
ing to ruins. An adjective clause is sometimes introduced 
by a relative adverb. The second where relates to earth. Of 
shows the relation of air to breath. 

147-2. Spread level is equivalent to was level; spread is 
the copula, and level is the predicate. 
147-4. Lay is the copula, and dying is the predicate. . 

147-6. -Ye and ye is the compound subject of descend 
(Irish) ; or ye understood is the subject (Adams). Some au- 
thors parse ye- in this sentence as an adjective; others con- 
sider it as a pronoun in the absolute case. Dews and showers 
should be parsed as appositives, unless ye is considered an 
adjective. 

147-11. All modifies village. 

147-13. It is an independent element, and the clause is the 
subject; or it may be called the subject, modified by the ex- 
planatory clause. 

147-15. Daves is modified by (to) touch, and by not, ad- 
veribal elements. 

147-19. Till is a preposition. 

148-20. But modifies are; it is used in the sense of only, 
or merely. 

148-22. A hundred modifies souls; about is an adverbial 
element, modifying a hundred. 

1 48-24. The clause, how the night behaved, is the subject of 
some verb (is, /rax or did mutter). What modifies matter, as 
an adjective element; or what is an objective element, if did 
matter be used as the predicate. The second line is similar 
to the first in construction. 



96 Grammar. 

148-25. The clauses introduced by when modify heaven. 
Bird is an independent element. 

163-1. Belli ml thee modifies crags'. 

163-7. Has become is the copula. 

164-3. /// snow modifies fresh. 

164-4. Lay low is equivalent to was low, low being a predi- 
cate adjective. /// valley modifies low. 

164-6. Mile, is an adverbial element, modifying ran. A 
preposition is undesrtood before miles. 

165-3. 7/ is the subject, and is modified by tosee;-OT it is an 
independent element, and to see is the subject. 

166-4. It, the subject, is modi lied by the clause, who the 
old gentleman was; or it is an independen telement and the 
subordinate clause is the subject. 

167-10. At liberty is the predicate, and is equivalent to 
free. Now and to con fens are adverbial elements, modifying 
at liberty. Much is the subject of was founded and is modi- 
fied by the subordinate clause introduced by whieh. Ob- 
jected modifies which. 

167-15. Worth is equivalent to be. The sentence is equiv- 
alent to Woe be to the chase! woe be to the day! 

172-2. Away and among shoulders are adverbial elements 
modifying pursued. 

173-3. The clause, that is not reason modifies nothing. 
172-4. Itself modifies Vice: Half and all are objective 
elements. Some authors call them adjective elements in this 
sentence. 

172-5. There is independent. Limit is the subject, and is 
is the predicate, of the principal clause. Limit is modified 
by the subordinate clause, at which forbearance ceases to he a 
virtue. Ceases to be is a strengthened copula. (See Har- 



Grammar. 97 

vey's Grammar, page 149). To be is an adverbial element, 
modifying ceases. 

172-11. The clause introduced by that modifies sure; or it 
is an adjective element, modifying some noun understood, 
as, fact, truth, etc. 

173-15. To be representative modifies which. Which is the 
object of found. 

171-9. The phrase introduced by except modifies girls. The 
clause beginning with who modifies girls understood. 

171-10. The second word tap modifies the first, being in 
apposition with it. 

180-18. The first line is equivalent to Then here is (a toast) 
to our boyhood, (to) its gold and (to) its gray. To is also un- 
derstood before stars and dews. 

189-22. The clause introduced by that modifies it. At 
time, <>f family, and the clause, who probably imagines, etc., 
modify repesentative. In reality ''modifies is acting. Almost 
is an adverbial element, modifying every. ' - 

189-24. Seem to have been is a strengthened copula, seem 
being modified by to have been, an adverbial element. Like 
is the predicate. Boy is the object of to understood. Play- 
ing and diverting are present participles, modifying boy. 
Than ordinary (pebbles are smooth or shells are pretty) mod- 
ifies smoother and prettier. Lay is a copula. All equals 
wholly and is an adverb, modifying undiscovered. Before me 
modifies lay; or it modifies undiscovered. 

Remark — In some constructions it is dim cult to decide upon 
the relation of the preposition, as in the foregoing sentence, in 
the use of before. There is ground for either view. 

189-25. Some is an adjective element, modifying we. Up 
modifies springing. 

189-27. The clause introduced by vjhere modifies seeks. 



98 Grammar. 

189-30. Rose and pillar aie predicates of the first member. 
Seemed is a copula. ' Engraven is an adjective used as the 
predicate after the copula sat. 

190-31. Near is an advert) modifying rose; and (to) copse 
modifies near; or near cqps< is a prepositional phrase, modi- 
fying rose. 

Where once the garden smiled modifies copse. Copse is also 
modified by the next clause. There and the clause following 
modify rose. Dear and rich modify num. To country mod- 
ifies dear. Passing is an adverbial element, modifying 
rich. Rich is also modified by with pounds. Year, or (m) 
year, is an adveribal element, modifying forty. 

190-32. Words is the subject, and came and went is the 
compound predicate, of the principal clause. Senators is 
the subject, and dream, and dreamt is the compound predi- 
cate, of the clause introduced by those. Oaks modifies sena- 
tors, and oranch-chimned modifies oaks- So modifies the sec- 
ond word dream. Save from is a complex preposition. Off 
is an adveribal element, modifying dies. But is an adver- 
bial element, and modifies one. The second word so modifies 
came and went. 

190-33. She is the subject, and tore and set is the com- 
pound predicate, of the principal clause. The predicate is 
modified by the clause, when Freedom unfurled, etc. Un- 
furled is modified by standard, an objective element; and by 
when, from, height, and to air, adverbial elements. The sec- 
ond word she is the subject of mingled and striped. Bald- 
ric is the object of mingled, and white is the object of striped. 



Teaching. 99 



1. KNOWLEDGE is that which is or may be known. 

2. MYSTERY is that which is not known. 

3. SCIENCE is knowledge systematized and explained. 

4. EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE is knowledge derived 
through the senses. 

5. RATIONAL KNOWLEDGE is knowledge of which 
reason is the source. 

6. EDUCATION treats of the proper development of the 
powers of man. 

7. EDUCATION AS A SCIENCE is the systematic de- 
termination and arrangement of the laws which govern the 
physical and mental actions of mankind. 

8. EDUCATION AS AN ART is the systematic body of 
directions for applying these laws in the development of the 
individual. 

9. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION has for its object the 
development of the intellectual powers of man. 

10. PHYSICAL EDUCATION has for its object the proper 
training of the powers of the body. 

11. MORAL EDUCATION has for its object the develop- 



100 Teaching. 

rnentof conscience and the'power to appreciate and to choose 
virtue or right. 

12. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, which includes "man- 
ual training,'' aims to prepare the pupil to enter immediate- 
ly into some business or employment. 

13. PSYCHOLOGY, or Mental Science, is the science 
which treats of the mind and its phenomena. 

14. THE MIND is man's power to know, feel, and will. 
Its three classes of powers are the Intellect, the Sensibility, 
and the 117//. 

15. THE INTELLECT is the power of the mind to know. 
Its divisions are the Presentative, the Representative, the Re- 
flective, and the Intuitive powers. 

16. THE SENSIBILITY is the power of the mind to feel. 

17. THE WILL is the power of the mind, to choose and 
execute. 

18. THE PRESENTATIVE POWERS give us knowledge 
of present objects through the senses. 

19. THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS are those by 
which we represent and reknow objects previously known. 

20. THE REFLECTIVE POWERS are those by which we 
discern the relations and connections of objects. 

21. THE INTUITIVE POWER is that by which we know 
certain fundamental things without being taught. Ideas of 
space, duration, right, etc., and all self-evident truths, come 
intuitively. 

22. CONSCIOUSNESS is the power of the mind to know 
its own acts and states. 

23. PERCEPTION is the power of the mind to know im- 
mediately and directly present material objects. It is also 
called Sense- Perception. The product is the Percept. 



Teaching. 101 

24. ATTENTION is the power of the mind to concentrate 
mental energy and activity upon any one object. 

25. MEMORY is the power of the mind to retain, repro- 
duce, and reknow its previous acquisitions. 

26. IMAGINATION is the power of the mind to repre- 
sent and modify or recombine objects previously known. 

27. UNDERSTANDING is the power by which the rela- 
tions of things to each other are determined. 

28. CONCEPTION is that activity of the mind which con- 
structs representations of classes of things. It involves 
Analysis, Comparison, Abstraction, and Generalisation. 

29. CONCEPTS are products of conception. 

30. ANALYSIS is the process of resolving that which is 
compound or complex into its parts or elements. 

31. SYNTHESIS is the process by which a compound or 
complex object is formed from simpler elements. 

82. COMPARISON is the process of discerning the agree- 
ment and disagreement of ideas or percepts. 

38. ABSTRACTION is the process by which a quality is 
drawn away from its object and made a special object of 
thought. 

34. GENERALIZATION is the act of applying a single 
general name to objects having certain common character- 
istics. 

35. JUDGMENT is the power of the mind to discern and 
affirm agreements and disagreements of objects of thought. 

36. REASONING is the process by which we reach con- 
clusions. 

37. INDLTCTION is that form of reasoning in which we 
proceed from particular cases to general truths. It is an as- 
cending or synthetic process. Thus, if we learn from obser- 



102 Teaching. 

vation that heat will expand zinc, iron, copper, etc., we may 
infer by induction that heat will expand all metals. 

38. DEDUCTION is that form of reasoning in which we 
apply general truths to particular eases. It is a descending 
or analytic process. Thus, from the general truth that heat 
expands all metals, we may infer by deduction that heat 
will expand silver, or any particular metal. 

89. PEDAGOGY is the science and art of teaching. 

40. AN EDUCATIONIST is one who is versed in educa- 
tion, and promotes the cause. 

41. AN EDUCATOR is one who educates or gives instruc- 
tion. 

42. AN INSTRUCTOR is one who furnishes the mind with 
knowledge. 

43. A TEACHER is one who furnishes the mind with 
knowledge, and aims to give development toward a higher 
life, intellectual or moral. 

44. INSTRUCTION is the act of furnishing the mind with 
knowledge. 

45. TEACHING is the act of presenting objects and sub- 
jects of thought to the pupil's mind as means of knowledge 
and development. 

4(3. THE ANALYTIC method of teaching is that in which 
the teacher goes from the whole to theywr/.s-, as in the sen- 
tence method of teaching reading. 

47. THE SYNTHETIC method of teaching is that in 
which the teacher begins with the parts and proceeds to the 
whole. 

48. THE INDUCTIVE method of teaching begins with in- 
dividual facts and by induction reaches a general principle 
or rule. 

49. THE DEDUCTIVE method of teaching ^begins with 



Teaching. 103 

the rule, or principle, or definition, and proceeds to particu- 
lar cases. 

50. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION: (1) The Text-book, 
the pupil being requried to use the text-book in the prepara- 
tion of his lesson; (2) the Oral, or that used with primary 
pupils to prepare them for the text-book; (3) the Socratic, 
as used by Socrates, the pupil being led to discover the truth, 
and trained to think, by skillful questioning; (4) the Topic- 
al, the pupil being required to recite by topics or subjects ; 
(5) the Lecture, used in professional schools. 

51. ESSENTIALS OF A RECITATION: (1) A brief re- 
view of the preceding lesson ; (2) a thorough examination of 
the daily lesson ; (3) a recapitulation of the daily lesson ; (4) 
directions and stimulation for the preparation of the ad- 
vanced lesson. 

52. OBJECTS OF A RECITATION: (1) To test the pu- 
pil's knowledge; (2) to enable the teacher to estimate the 
daily progress of the pupils ; (3) to enable the teacher to give 
instruction ; (4) to cultivate the power of expression and 
habits of accuracy and neatness; (5) to excite and stimulate 
a love for study. 

53. THE TEACHER'S QUALIFICATIONS: (1) A thor- 
ough knowledge of the branches to be taught; (2) a knowl- 
edge of the branches that directly contribute to the branches 
to be taught; (3) a knowledge of the principles of education ; 
(4) a knowledge of the best methods of teaching and school 
management; (5) a cheerful and hopeful disposition; (6) a 
love for the work; (7) firmness; (8) patience; (9) punctuality; 
(10) good health. 

54. MAXIMS OF ELEMENTARY TEACHING: 

1. Observation before reasoning. 

2. Proceed from the near to the remote. 



104 Teaching. 

3. Pass from the familiar to the strange. 

4. The concrete lief ore the abstract. 

5. Proceed from the simple to the complex. 

6. Proceed from the known to the related unknown. 

7. Pass from til'- particular to the general. 

8. Easy steps for the little feet. 

9. A clear concept before the definition. 

10. A clear comprehension of processes before the state- 
ment of a rule. 

11. The how should always precede the wliif, in primary 
work. 

55. LAWS OF TEACHING: 

1. Know thoroughly what you would teach. 

2. Secure attention by sustaining interest. 

3. Adapt your teaching to the capacity of the pupils. 

4. Lead, not leave, your pupils to find out by themselves. 

5. The order of instruction must correspond to the order 
of growth, — the perceptive', the conceptive, and the thinking 
powers. 

6. Instruction should first be inductive, then deductive. 

7. Aim to secure clearness of ideas, strength and depth of 
thought, and breadth of comprehension by means of regular, 
systematic and continued exercise in thinking-. 



Appendix. 105 



APPENDIX. 



The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. 

The Pyramids of Egypt; the Hanging Gardens of Baby- 
lon ; the Tomb of Mausoleus; the Temple of Diana at Ephe- 
sus; the Colossus of Rhodes; the Statue of Zeus (Jupiter) by 
Phidias; the Pharos of Egypt. 

The S iven Wise Men of Greece. 

Solon, of Athens; Pittacus, of Mitylene; Thales, of Mile- 
tus; Bias, of Priene; Chilon, of Sparta; Cleobulus, tyrant of 
Lindus, in Rhodes ; and Periander, tyrant of Corinth. 

The Seven Wonders of North America. 

The Niagara Falls; the Mammoth Cave, in Kentucky; 
Lake Superior; Yosemite Valley, in California; the Natural 
Bridge, in Virginia ; the East River Bridge, in New York : 
the Washington Monument (555 ft.), at Washington. 

The Greatest Philosophers. 

Aristotle, Plato, Seneca, Bacon. Locke, Berkeley, Des- 
cartes, Hamilton, and Le Compte. ( 



106 Appendix. 

The Greatest Teachers. 

Christ, Pestalozzi, Comenius, Socrates. Locke. Herbart, 
Rousseau, Froebel, Plato. Mann, etc. 

The Greatest Historians. 

Herodotus, Gibbon, Hume. Macauley, Buckie, Plutarch, 
Livy, Tacitus, Hallam, Froude, JosephuS, Bancroft, Pres- 
cott, and Motley. 

• The Greatest Soldiers. 

Bannibal, Napoleon Bonaparte, Julius Caesar, Alexander 
the Great, the Duke of Marlborough, Frederick the Great, 
Belisarius, Philip the Great, Washington, Grant, and Lee. 

The Greatest Preachers. 

Paul, Whitefield, Massillon, Bossuet, Luther, Spurgeon, 
Beeeher, Fuller, Taylor, Knox, and Talmage. 

A Chronology of Great Inventions. 

1438. Printing with types of wood invented by Koster. 

1411. Printing with types of metal invented by Gutenberg. 

1595. Air gun invented by Martin. 

1657. Fire engine invented by Hautsch. 

1672. Railroad invented by Beaumont. 

1752. Lightning conductor invented by Benjamin Fra nklin. 

1759. Locomotive invented by James Watt. 

1768. Steam engine invented by James Watt (?). 

1777. Torpedo invented by David Bushnell. 

1793. Cotton gin invented by Eli Whitney. 

1807. Steamboat invented by Robert Fulton. 



Appendix. 107 

1S15. Gas meter invented by Clegg. 
1827. Matches invented by Walker. 

1831. Reaper or harvester invented by C. H. McCormick. 
1831. Platform scales invented by Thaddens Fairbanks. 
1837. Electric telegraph invented by S. F. B. Morse and 
Robert Vail. 

1841. Sewing machine invented by Elias Howe. 
1876. Electric light invented by Thomas Edison. 

1876. Telephone invented by Bell; or by Gray, Dol bear, 
or Edison. 

1877. Phonograph invented by Thomas Edison. 

Political Parties of the United States. 

THE FEDERAL PARTY favored a strong central govern- 
ment, and therefore voted for the adoption of the Constitu- 
tion. It arose on the formation of the Constitution, and 
ceased to exist after the election of 1816. 

THE ANTI-FEDERAL PARTY opposed the adoption of 
the Constitution on the plea that it would give tho central 
government a dangerous power, and that the chief power 
should be exercised by the different States. It assumed the 
name Republican, about 1791 ; then later it was called the 
Democratic-Republican party, and, after 1824, the name was 
shortened to Democartic. It still exists as one of the great 
parties. 

THE NATIONAL REPUBLICAN PARTY grew out of 
the Democratic-Republican party, in 1828. It, favored high 
tariff and public improvements. This party gradually as- 
sumed the name WHIG PARTY, by which name it was 
known after 1836. The Whig party vanished in the North 
after 1850, and in the South ten years later. 



10' s Appendix. 

THE LIBERTY PARTY was organized in 1839. It is 
also known as the Anti-Slavery, or Abolitionist party. It 
opposed slavery, and was absorbed by the Free- Soil party. 

THE FREE-SOIL PARTY was formed in 1848 by moder- 
ate abolitionists of the North, or those of the Whigs and 
Democrats who opposed the extension of slavery into the 
newly-acquired territory. 

THE NATIVE AMERICAN PARTY was formed in 1835. 
It opposed the rapid naturalization and office-holding of for- 
eigners. It was succeeded in 1852 by the American party, 
whose motto was "Americans shall rule America, 1 ' The 
members professed to know nothing about the secrets of the 
organization, and the party became known as the Know- 
Nothing party. 

THE REPUBLICAN PARTY was organized to oppose the 
extension of slavery. It was first known by its present name 
in 1856. It was supported largely by all parties except the 
extreme strict-construction Democrats. It continues as one 
of the leading parties of the country. 

THE NATIONAL PROHIBITION PARTY was formed in 
1869 to -prohibit the manufacture and sale of intoxicating 
liquors, except for certain purposes. 

THE GREENBACK PARTY was. formed in 1876. It ad- 
vocated an unlimited issue of "greenbacks," or government 
paper currency. 

OTHER PARTIES.— About 1873 the Farmers' Alliance 
was formed to favor agricultural interests. In 1885 the 
Fanner*" Union was formed. In 1889 these parties united 
under the name National Farmers' Alliance. The Union 
Labor party was formed in 1887 from various labor parties 
of less importance. Then^ in 1891, the People's party, or 



Appendix. 109 

the Populist party, was formed mainly by the union of these 
various agricultural and labor parties. 

The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World. 

Professor E. S. Creasy, of London, denominates the follow- 
ing battles "decisive," not only because of their immediate 
results, but because in each a reversed victory would have 
changed the history of the nations engaged in the respective 
battles. 

1. MARATHON, B. C. 490. The Athenians and their al- 
lies under Miltiades defeated the Persians under Datis and 
Artaphernes. Free government preserved. 

2. SYRACUSE, B. C. 414. The Athenians defeated by 
the Syracusans and the Spartans under Gylippus. The re- 
sources of Athens were wrecked. 

3. ARBELA, B. C. 331. The Macedonians and Greeks 
under Alexander the Great defeated the Persians under 
Darius III. The end of the Persian empire, and the begin- 
ning of the spread of Hellenic civilization over Western 
Asia. 

4. METAURUS, B. C. 207. The Carthaginians under 
Hasdrubal were defeated by the Romans under Cains and 
Marcus Livius. Carthage lost her power, and w T as speedily 
overthrown. 

5. WINFELD-L1PPE, A. D. 9. The Germans under 
Arminius (Hermann) defeated the Roman Legions under 
Varus. Teutonic independence established. 

6. CHALONS, A. D. 451. The Romans and Visigoths un- 
der Theodoric and Aetius defeated the Huns under Attila, 
the "Scourge of God." This victory decided whether pagans 
or Christians should control the future destinies of Europe. 



110 Appendix. 

7. TOUES, A. D. 732. The Saracens under Abderrah- 
man defeated by the Franks under Charles Martel. Christ- 
endom rescued from Islam. 

8. HASTINGS, A. D. 1066. The English under Harold 
defeated by the Normans under William the Conqueror. 
The English nation was thoroughly subjugated, and the 
Normans became the ruling class 

9. SIEGE OF ORLEANS, A. D. 1429. The English de- 
feated by the French under Joan of Arc. The victory closed 
the Hundred Years' War, and France becomes a great mon- 
archy. The power of the common people increased in Eng- 
land and France. 

10. SPANISH ARMADA, A. D. 1588. The Armada 
under the Duke of Medina Sidonia defeated by the English 
under Howard, Drake, and Seymour. Spain began to de 
cline in naval power, and England became mistress of the 
seas. 

11. BLENHEIM, A. D. 1704. The English and the Aus- 
trian s under the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene 
defeated the French and Bavarians under Marshal Tallard. 
The victory wrought great changes in European affairs. 

12. PULTOWA, A. D. 1709. Charles XII. of Sweden de- 
feated by the Russians under Peter the Great. The victory 
gave Russia wider territory, which greatly increased her 
power. 

13. SARATOGA, A. D. 1777. Burgoyue surrendered his 
entire army to Gates. The English army was greatly weak- 
ened, and the aid of France was thus secured. The Thirteen 
English Colonies became a separate nation. 

14. VALMY, A. D. 1792. An invading army of Prus- 
sians, Austrians and Hessains under the Duke of Brunswick, 
defeated by the French under Kellermann. ■ The young de- 



Appendix. Ill 

mocracy of France gained its first victory over the foreign 
invaders. 

15. WATERLOO, A. D. 1815. The French under Na- 
poleon Bonaparte defeated by the allied armies of Russia, 
Austria, Prussia, and England, under Wellington. The bat- 
tle ended the long wars which the French Revolution and 
the ambition of Napoleon Bonaparte had kindled. The mili- 
tary power of France was thoroughly broken. 

Of Historical Value. 

THE ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, a Grecian myth, 
was so called from the ship Argo, in which the expedition 
was made. Phryxus, a Theban prince, and his sister Helle, 
to save themselves from the cruelty of their step-mother, 
mounted on the back of a winged ram with a golden fleece, 
to be carried to Colchis, where an uncle of theirs was king. 
In passing over the strait now Called Dardanelles, Helle be- 
came giddy, and fell into the water and was drowned. From 
this, the strait was called Hellespont. Phryxus arrived safe 
. and sacrificed his winged ram to Jupiter in acknowledge- 
ment of Divine protection, and put the golden fleece in that 
deity's temple. He was afterwards murdered by his uncle, 
who wished to obtain possession of the golden fleece. To 
avenge the death of a Phryxus and to secure the golden 
fleece, Jason, a prince of Thessaly, with fifty companion 
heroes, went on the famous expedition. The expedition was 
successful. 

THE AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL was so called from its 
reputed founder, the legendary Amphictyon, who was re- 
garded as one of the early kings of Attica. The council con- 
sisted of two deputies from each of the leading states of 



112 Appendix. 

Greece. The duties of the coudciI were to effect a settle- 
ment of all religious and political disputes that might arise 
among the different Grecian states, and to decide upon pro- 
posals of peace or war with foreign nations. They were 
sworn to protect the Temple of Apollo, at Delphi. 

AN OLYMPIAD was an interval of four years between 
two successive festivals or celebrations of the Olympian 
games. These games were trials of strength and agility, 
tested by running, boxing, leaping, wrestling, and so on, at 
Olympia every fourth year. The establishment of the 
Olympian Festival took place in the year 776 B. C, from 
which time the Greeks thereafter reckoned time. 

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM was an early European govern- 
mental institution. The barbarians who overthrew the West- 
ern Roman Empire divided the conquered lands among 
themselves. The chief of each tribe was called "king. " Un- 
der him were other chiefs or leaders called "barons. " Un- 
der each of these barons there were still other chiefs, and 
under these last was a large body of people. The king 
granted a part of his estate &s fiefs, qt feuds, to his nobles, 
w T ho were to serve him in person, and furnish upon his call 
a certain number of armed men. These nobles or vassals, 
in like manner, granted estates to their followers or vas- 
sals. Thus each vassal bestowed fiefs and sub-fiefs on his 
vassals, each of whom did homage for his lands to his liege- 
lord. There were many grades of fiefs and sub-fiefs. The 
different bands of armed men, collected together, made up 
the feudal army of the kingdom. Feudalism was at first a 
necessity of the times, but it led to oppression of the lower 
classes. Several influences contributed to its' dowmf all. 

CHIVALRY was an institution which grew out of Feudal- 
ism. It originated in the piety of some nobles who wished 



Appendix. 113 

to give to the profession of arms a religious tendency. These 
nolbes devoted their swords to God, and bound themselves 
by a solemn oath to use them only in the cause of the weak 
and the oppressed. The sons of the nobles were sent to the 
castle of some superior lord to receive training in military 
exercises and the etiquette of the times. At the age of 
twenty-one the worthy sons became knights, and were 
armed for service. The good effects of Chivalry were many. 
It protected the weak. It inculcated' gentle manners and re- 
spect for the female sex. It continued from 1,000 to 1,500 
A. D. 

Generals Commanding IT. S. Army. 

George Washington, 1775-1783; Henry Knox, 1783-1784 
Josiah Harmer, 1788-1791; Arthur St. Clair, 1791-1796 
James Wilkinson, 1796-1798 ; George Washington, 1799-1800 
James Wilkinson, 1800-1812; Henry Dearborn, 1812-1815 
Jacob Brown, 1815-1828; Alexander Macomb, 1828-1811 
Winfield Scott, 1811-1861 ; George B. McClellan, 1861-1862 
Henry W. Halleck, 1862-1861; Ulysses S. Grant, 1864-1869 
William T. Sherman, 1869-1883 ; Philip H. Sheridan, 1883- 
1888 ; James M. Schofield, 1888-1895 ; Nelson A. Miles, 1895—. 

Creeds of the Human Family. 

Creeds. No. of Followers. 

Christianity 477,088,158. 

Confucianism 256,000,000. 

Hindooism 190,000,000. 

Mohammedanism 176,834,372. 

Buddhism 147,900,000. 

Taoism 43,000,000. 

Judaism 7,056,000. 

Polytheism ' 117,700,000. 



114 Appendix. 

Chief Justices of the United States, 

Name. State. Tcrm 

John Jay New York 1789-1795. 

John Rutledge South Carol ina 1795-1795- 

Oliver Ellsworth Connecticut 1796-1801. 

John Marshall Virginia 1801-1830. 

Roger B. Taney Maryland 1836-1864. 

Salmon P. Chase Ohio , 1864-1873. 

Morrison R. Waite Ohio 1874-1888. 

Melville W. Puller Illinois 1888—. 

Facts from the Literary Field. 

Shakespeare, Burns, Moore, Byron, and Tennyson were 
probably the greatest poets. 

The great poets of England: Shakespeare, Milton, 
Chaucer, Ben Johnson, Pope, Spenser, Moore, Goldsmith', 
Byron, Southey, Cowper, Coleridge, Browning, Words- 
worth, Tennyson, and Austin. 

The great English historians and prose writers: Ruskins, 
Froude, Carlyle, Gibbon, and Macauley. 

The great American poets: Bryant, Longfellow, Lowell, 
Holmes, Whittier, Emerson, Poe, Drake, and Whitman. 

Noted American historians: Prescott, Motley, Bancroft 
Parkman, and Fiske. 



Appendix. 



115 



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116 Appendix. 

THE COUNTRY JUSTICE. 



"The snow is deep," the Justice said; 
"There's mighty mischief overhead." 
"High talk, indeed!" his wife exclaimed: 
"What, sir! shall Providence be blamed?" 
The Justice, laughing, said, "Oh, no! 
I only meant the loads of snow 
Upon the roofs. The barn is weak ; 
I greatly fear the roof will break. 
So hand me up the spade, my dear — 
I'll mount the barn, the roof to clear." 

"No!" said the wife; "the barn is high, 
And if you slip, and fall, and die, 
How will my living be secured? — 
Stephen, your life is not insured. 
But tie a rope your waist around, 
And it will hold you safe and sound." 

"I will, " said he. "Now for the roof- 
All snugly tied and danger-proof! 
Excelsior! Excel— But no! 
The rope is not secured below!" 
Said Rachel, "Climb, the end to throw 
Across the top, and I will go 
And tie that end around my waist. " 

"Well, every woman to her taste; 
You always would be tightly laced. 
Rachel, when you became my bride, 
I thought the knot securely tied; 
But lest the bond should break in twain, 
I'll have it fastened once again. " 



Appendix. 117 

Below the arm-pits tied around, 

She takes her station on the ground, 

While on the roof, beyond the ridge, 

He shovels clear the lower edge. 

But, sad mischance! the loosened snow 

Comes sliding down, to plunge below. 

And as he tumbles with the slide, 

Up Rachel goes on t'other side. 

Just half way down the Justice hung; 

Just half way up the woman swung. 
"Good land o' Goshen!" shouted she; 
"Why, do you see it?" answered he. 

The couple, dangling in the breeze, 
Like turkeys hung outside to freeze, 
At their rope's end and wit's end, too, 
Shout back and forth what best to do. 
Cried Stephen, "Take it coolly, wife; 
All have their ups and downs in life." 
Quoth Rachel, "What a pity 'tis 
To joke at such a time as this! 
A man whose wife is being hung 
Should know enough to hold his tongue. " 
"Now, Rachel, as I look below, 
I see a tempting heap of snow. 
Suppose, my dear, I take my knife, 
And cut the rope to save my life?" 
She shouted, "Don't! 'twould be my death— 
I see some pointed stones beneath. 
A better way would be to call, 
With all our might for Phebe Hall. " 



118 ArrENDix. 

''Agreed!" he roared. First he, then she 
Gave tongue: -"O Phebe! Phebe! J*/,,.-, 
he Hall!" in tones both fine and coarse, 
Enough to make a drover hoarse. 

Now Phebe, over at the farm, 
Was sitting, sewing, snug and warm ; 
But hearing, as she thought, her name, 
.Sprang up, and to the rescue came, 
Beheld the scene, and thus she thought:— 

■ ' If now a kitchen chair were brought, 
And I could reach the lady's foot, 
I'd draw her downward by the boot, 
Then cut the rope, and let him go ; 
He cannot miss the pile of snow. " 
He sees her moving towards his wife, 
Armed with a chair and carving-knife, 
And, ere he is aware, perceives 
His head ascending to the eaves; 
And, guessing what the two are at, 
Screams from beneath the roof, "Stop that! 
You make me fall too far, by half!" 
But Phebe answers with a laugh, 

"Please tell a body by what right 
You've brought your wife to such a plight?" 
And then, with well-directed blows, 
She cuts the rope and down he goes. 

The wife untied, they walk around, 
When lo! no Stephen can be found. 
They call in vain, run to and fro; 
They look around, above, below; 
No trace or token can they see. 



Appendix. 119 

And deeper grows the mystery. 
Then Eachel's heart within her sank; 
But, glancing at the snowy bank, 
She caught a little gleam of hope — 
A gentle movement of the rope. 
They scrape away a little snow: — 
What's this? A hat! Ah! he's below. 
Then upward heaves the snowy pile, 
And forth he stalks in tragic style, 
Unhurt, and with a roguish smile; 
And Rachel sees, with glad surprise,. 
The missing found, the fallen rise. 

1 'The Country Justice. ' ' 



SHERIDAN'S RIDE. 



Up from the South at break of day, 
Bringing to Winchester fresh dismay, 
The affrighted air with a shudder bore, 
Like a herald in haste to the chieftain's door, 
The terrible grumble, and rumble, and roar, 
Telling the battle was on once more, 
And Sheridan twenty miles away. 

And wider still those billows of war 

Thundered along the horizon's bar; 

And louder yet into Winchester rolled 

The roar of that red sea uncontrolled, 

Making the blood of the listener cold, 

As he thought of the stake in that fiery fray; 

And Sheridan twenty miles away. 



120 Appendix. 

But there is a road from Winchester town 

A good broad highway leading down ; 

And there, through the flush of the morning light, 

A steed as-black as the steeds of night 

Was seen to pass, as with eagle flight 

As if he knew the terrible need ; 

He stretched away with his utmost speed; 

Hills rose and fell ; but his heart was gay, 

With Sheridan fifteen miles away. 

Still sprung from those swift hoofs, thundering South, 

The dust, like smoke from the cannon's mouth; 

Or the trail of a comet, sweeping faster and faster, 

Foreboding to traitors the doom of disaster. 

The heart of the steed, and the heart of the master 

Were beating like prisoners assaulting their walls, 

Impatient to lie where the battle-field calls; 

Every nerve of the charger was strained to full play, 

With Sheridan only ten miles away. 

Under his spurning feet, the road 

Like an arrowy Alpine river flowed. 

And the landscape sped away behind 

Like an ocean flying before the wind, 

And the steed, like a bark fed with furnace ire, 

Swept on, with his wild eye full of fire. 

But lo! he is nearing his heart's desire; 

He is snuffing the smoke of the roaring fray, 

With Sheridan only five miles away. 

The first that the General saw were the groups 
Of stragglers, and then the retreating troops; 
What was done? what to do? a glance told him both ; 
Then striking his spurs, with a terrible oath 



Appendix. 121 

He dashed down the line, 'mid a storm of huzzas, 
And the wave of retreat checked its course there, because 
The sight of the master compelled it to pause. 
With foam and with dust the black charger was gray ; 
By the flash of his eye, and the red nostril's play, 
He seemed to the whole great army to say, 

"I have brought you Sheridan all the way 
From Winchester, down to save the day." 
Hurrah ! hurrah for Sheridan ! 
Hurrah ! hurrah for horse and man ! 
And when their statues are placed on high 
Under the dome of the Union sky, 
The American soldiers' Temple of Fame, 
There with the glorious General's name 
Be it said in letters both bold and bright: 

"Here is the steed that saved the day 
By carrying Sheridan into the fight, 
From Winchester — twenty miles away!" 

T. B. Reade. 



A MOVING SERMON. 
My beloved brethering, before I take my text I must tell 
you about parting with my old congregation at Watkinsville, 
a little town named in honor of your speaker. On the morn- 
ing of last Sabbath I went into the meeting-house to preach 
my farewell sermon. Just in front of me sot the old fathers 
and mothers in Israel ; the tears coursed down their furrowed 
cheeks; their tottering forms, and quivering lips breathed 
out a sad "Fare ye well, Brother Watkins, ah!" Behind 
them sot the middle aged men and matrons; health and vigor 
beamed from every countenance ; and as they looked up, I 
could see in their dreamy eyes a "Fare ye well, Brother 



122 Appendix. 

Watkins, ah!" Behind them sot the girls and boys that I 
had baptized and gathered into the Sunday-school. Many 
times had they been rude and boisterous, but now their 
merry laugh was hushed, and in their silence I could hear, 
"Fare ye well, Brother Watkins, ah!" Around on the back 
seats, and in the aisles stood and sot the colored br ether in «■ 
with their black faces and honest hearts, and as I looked 
upon them I could see a "Fare ye well, Brother Watkins!" 
When I had finished the discourse and shaken hands with the 
brethering-ah ! I passed out to take a look at the old church, 
ah! The broken steps, the flopping blinds, and the moss- 
covered roof suggested only, "Fare ye well, Brother Wat- 
kins, ah!" 

I mounted my old gray mar' with my earthly possessions 
in my saddle-bags, and as I passed down the streets the ser- 
vant girls stood in the doors, and with their brooms waved 
me a "Fare ye well, Brother Watkins, ah!" 

I passed through the village, and came down to the creek, 
my old mar' stopped to drink. I could hear the water rip- 
pling over the pebbles, and even the little fishes gathered 
round and looked up; all seemed to say, "Fare ye well, 
Brother Watkins, ah!" I was slowly passing up the hill, 
meditating upon the sad vicissitudes and mutations of life, 
when suddenly out bounded a big hog from a fence corner, 
with, aboo! aboo! and I came to the ground with my saddle- 
bags by my side. As I lay in the dust of the road my old gray 
mar' ran up the hill, and as she turned the top she waved 
her tail back at me seemingly to say — "Farewell, Brother 
Watkins, ah!" I tell you, my brethering, it is affecting 
times to part with a congregation you have been with for 
thirty years, ah! "And also such a good old mar' as mine 
was-ah ! — Anonymous, 



Appendix. 123 

MARY'S LAMB WITH VARIATIONS. 



Mary had a little lamb 

As black as a rubber shoe, 
And everywhere that Mary went 

He emigrated too. 
He went with her to church one day — 

The folks hilarious grew 
To see him walk demurely 

Into Deacon Allen's pew. 
The worthy deacon quickly let 

His angry passion rise, 
And gave him an unchristian kick 

Between his sad brown eyes. 
This landed lamby in the aisle ; 

The deacon followed fast 
And raised his foot again, — alas! 

That first kick was his last; 
For Mr. Sheep walked slowly back 

About a rod, 'tis said, 
And ere the deacon could retreat 

He stood him on his head. 
The congregation then arose 

And went for that 'ere sheep, 
When several well directed butts 

Just piled them in a heap. 
Then rushed they straightway for the door 

With curses long and loud, 
While lamby struck the hindmost man 

And shoved him through the crowd. 



1 24 Appendix. 

The minister had often heard 

That kindness would subdue 
The fiercest beast. "Aha!" he said, 

"I'll try that game on you. " 
And so he kindly, gently called, 

"Come, lam by, lam by, lamb, 
To see the folks abuse you so 

I grieved and sorry am." 
With kind and gentle words he came 

From that tall pulpit down, 
Saying, "Lamby, lamby, lamb,— 

Best sheepy in the town!" 
The lamb quite dropped his humble air, 

And rose from off his feet, 
And when the parson landed he 

Was past the hindmost seat. 
As he shot out the open door, 

And closed it with a slam, 
He named a California town — 

I think 'twas "Yuba Dam." 

— Atwnymous. 



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United -■.- States -■.- History. 

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